Ethics of Confucius, Mencius and Xun-zi by Sanderson BeckBECK indexConfucius, Mencius and Xun-ziConfuciusTeachings of ConfuciusFollowers of ConfuciusMenciusXun-ziLater Confucian Works This chapter is part of the book China, Korea & Japan to 1800, which has now been published.For informationon ordering click here. Shang, Zhou and the Classics As education and literacy spread in China and scholars becameinfluential as ministers of rulers, philosophers also began toflourish. In the late sixth century BC two of the greatest philosophersof all time emerged in China - Lao-zi, the founder of Daoism,and Confucius, whose philosophy and religion came to dominateChina for more than two millennia. ConfuciusConfucius is the Latinized form of Kong Fu-zi, which meansKong the master. Confucius was born in the small state of Lu in551 BC and died in 479 BC. This was a time of turmoil, politicalintrigue, and numerous small wars in the last part of the Springand Autumn era. Assassinations, bribery, adultery, and other crimeswere common even though punishments were severe. In Lu three familiescontended for the hereditary rulership, while numerous educatedaristocrats sought positions in the government, and many sufferedpoverty.Confucius was brought up as a gentleman, who took up music,archery, and fishing, although he said he fished without a netand would not shoot at a bird at rest. He was so absorbed in musicthat once he did not know the taste of meat for three months.He also learned to do practical jobs of humble people such askeeper of the stores and head of the pastures. However, most ofthe time Confucius was not able to find an official position thoughhe was willing to do anything that did not involve wrong-doing.Perhaps it was his ethical concerns that prevented him from beinguseful to the rulers of his time. Instead he occupied his timein what he loved the most - the pursuit of learning.By the age of fifteen Confucius had set his heart on learning;by thirty he felt that he was firmly established; at forty hewas no longer confused; by fifty he had a sense of mission infollowing the will of heaven; at sixty he was at ease with whateverhe heard; and when he was seventy, he felt he could do whateverhe liked without violating moral principles. No single teacherhad a great influence on Confucius, as he tried to learn fromeveryone. His model, however, was the ancient Duke of Zhou, whohad helped to establish the Zhou dynasty. The spiritual connectionhe felt with the ancient duke is indicated by his regret oncethat it had been a long time since he had dreamed of the Dukeof Zhou. Confucius studied thoroughly the classics of history,poetry, propriety, and especially the Book of Changes (YiJing). He believed that if he could spend fifty years studyingChanges, he might yet be free of great mistakes.Confucius became an orphan at an early age. He married andhad a son and a daughter, and he also took care of his older brother,who was crippled. Confucius claimed little for himself exceptthat he never neglected proper mourning nor was he ever overcomeby wine. Confucius was perhaps the first professional teacherof adults we know of in China. He accepted any student bringingany gift at all even if they were poor. When he was fifty, Confuciuswas finally given a position in the government, though his advicewas not often valued. He advised Ji Kang-zi, who became head ofthe ruling families, to show piety toward his parents and kindnesstoward his children, promote the worthy, and train the incompetent.Here we see the important emphasis on education and ability ratherthan heredity. Several of Confucius' students did attain importantpositions in government, as Confucius recommended Zilu for efficiency,Zigong for understanding, and Ran Qiu for versatility.In his late fifties Confucius used a ceremonial improprietyto leave Lu so that he could see if other states might put hisprinciples into practice. In Wei he was not afraid to meet withthe notorious Nan-zi, a woman involved in incest, adultery, andpolitical intrigue. When the Duke of Wei asked his advice on militarystrategy, Confucius declared that he had knowledge of sacrificialvessels but had not studied warfare. The next day he left Weiand went to Chen. While he was traveling through Song, Huan Tui,the Song Minister of War, tried to have him assassinated; butConfucius said, "Heaven produced the virtue that is in me.What do I have to fear from such a one as Huan Tui?"1 Thisdid not prevent Confucius from accepting Huan Tui's brother SimaNiu as a student, although Sima Niu did renounce his dastardlybrother.Confucius was also trapped at Kuang and thought his favoritestudent, Yen Hui, was dead. When they got to Chen, they were weakand short of supplies. The Duke of Chen was involved in war atthe time; but Confucius did speak with the Minister of Crime aboutpropriety before going back to Lu, because he was concerned thathis students were becoming headstrong and careless. The only rulerwho seemed to agree with Confucius that virtue was important wasthe Duke of She in the small state of Cai. He was invited thereonce; but Zi-lu pointed out they were in rebellion then, and soConfucius decided not to go, though he felt like a gourd thatwas only fit to hang up but not to eat. Confucius also rejectedan offer in a similar situation from the Bi castle even thoughhe believed that he might be able to "make a Zhou in theeast."2Confucius returned to Wei to advise the prime minister KungYu, who was willing to listen to him. Kung forced one of his noblesto divorce his wives to marry his daughter; but when he kept aconcubine, and Kung asked Confucius how to attack him, Confuciustold him not to attack. When Kung went ahead anyway, Confuciusprepared his chariot to leave. Kung apologized, and Confuciuswas ready to change his mind; but then messengers arrived fromLu inviting him to return to his home state. Confucius spent hislast five years in Lu. Once Ran Qiu was sent by Ji Kang-zi toask the master's opinion about raising taxes. Confucius stoodwith the people against this; when Ran Qiu collected the increasedtaxes, Confucius declared that he was no disciple of his. AlthoughConfucius did advise Duke Ai to support the common people, advancethe upright, and punish a usurper, he was ignored and felt thathe never really had a chance to show what he could do.In addition to teaching, Confucius is credited with editingthe Book of Odes and the Spring and Autumn Annals,revising the music and ceremonies, and writing commentaries onthe Book of Changes. The main source of his teachings describinghis conversations with his students in the Analects (Lun Yu)was apparently written by his students. From these accounts wecan see not only what Confucius taught but how he taught and whathis attitudes and manners were like. He was said to be free ofhaving forgone conclusions, dogmatism, obstinacy, and egotism.His manner was affable but firm, commanding but not harsh, whilehe was polite and completely at ease. Zigong said Confucius couldget information in a foreign state by being cordial, frank, courteous,temperate, and deferential. Zigong added that this was not theway inquiries were usually made. Confucius had a gentle senseof humor and did not mind being corrected by his own students.Confucius was particularly respectful of those in mourningand made filial piety or respect for one's parents a cardinalvirtue. He said, In serving his father and mother a man may gently remonstrate with them. But if he sees that he has failed to change their opinion, he should resume an attitude of deference and not thwart them; may feel discouraged, but not resentful.3Confucius cared most about people and was perhaps the firstgreat humanist in history. When the stables burned down, he askedif any person had been hurt but did not inquire about the horses.He recognized the free will of every individual, believing thatthe commander of three armies could be removed, but the will ofeven a common person could not be taken away. He spoke of theway (dao), as when he said, "In the morning hear theway; in the evening die content;"4 yet he believed that itwas humans who made the way great, not the way that made humansgreat. Confucius believed that he could even live among the barbarians,because virtue never dwells alone and will always bring good neighbors.He believed that a gentleman should help the needy, not make therich richer still. Confucius criticized Yuan Si for rejectinghis salary of nine hundred measures of grain as governor, becausehe could have given it to his neighbors.Confucius never gave up and believed that he was serving bybeing filial even if he was not in the government. He never expectedto meet a faultless person but hoped that he might meet someoneof fixed principles even though he saw many examples of nothingpretending to be something. He greatly disliked sham and deceit.He felt he could not stoop to clever talk, a pretentious manner,and a reverence that was only of the feet. He could not bear tosee high offices filled with men of narrow views, ceremonies performedwithout reverence, and mourning forms observed without grief.He hated seeing sharp mouths overturning states and clans.Confucius believed that his mission was to spread the culturethat had been passed on to him by King Wen, and trusting thatthis was the will of heaven he did not even fear an assassin.He must have believed in prayer, because he said that whoeverturns away from heaven has no one to pray to. He hoped that evenif he was not recognized in the world, he would be known in heaven.When Confucius became ill, some of his students dressed up asretainers; but the master reprimanded them for this pretense,because he knew he could not deceive heaven. He preferred to diein the arms of his disciples anyway. Although he believed therewere others as honest as himself, Confucius felt that no one lovedlearning as much as he did. Any situation could be a lesson. Whenwalking with others he could emulate the good qualities he sawin others and correct the bad qualities in himself. Confuciusdid not believe himself to be a sage or even perfectly virtuous,but he did claim unwearying effort to learn and unflagging patiencein teaching others.Confucius believed that people were similar by nature but becamedifferent by practice, and thus there are some one can join instudy, others one can join in progress along the way, others againbeside whom one can take one's stand, and finally some whom onecan join in counsel.Teachings of ConfuciusConfucius was willing to teach and learn with anyone who cameto him; once he even accepted an uncapped youth, though he statedthat he was not responsible for what the youth did when he left.He once struck a man in the shins with his staff, because he waswaiting for him in a sprawling position; he said that youths whoshow no respect for their elders achieve nothing, and those whomerely get older are useless pests. He observed that one youthseemed to be more interested in growing up quickly than in improvinghimself. He expected his students to desire learning and thinkfor themselves. As long as the student was making effort, regardlessof his progress he would help him. He even encouraged them tocompete with him in goodness. However, he found that most of themwere looking for the rewards of a career. He was glad when studentsstayed with him rather than accepting the first position offered,though he did emphasize that the model sayings were to be carriedout in practice. The rational Confucius did not act without knowingwhy; he heard much and selected what is good to follow, callingit the second type of knowledge. He once spent a whole day meditatingwithout food and all night without sleep, but he found that itwas better for him to learn.Confucius thought of himself as a transmitter of the ancientculture, not a creator of new ideas. He held nothing back fromhis students and consulted with them as friends on every step.Yet he realized it is useless to speak of higher things to thosewho are below average. Listening silently and learning and teachinguntiringly were natural to Confucius. The thought that I have not properly cultivated virtue, that what is learned has not been thoroughly discussed, that knowing what is right I have not moved toward it, that what is wrong I have not been able to change - these are the things which bother me.5Confucius observed and related to the individual characteristicsof his students, but he did not know if any of them were trulygood. When Zigong quoted back to the master his version of thegolden rule - "What I do not want others to do to me, I donot want to do to them"6 - Confucius pointed out he had notlived up to that yet, because he was often criticizing others.Confucius said Zigong was fortunate to have time for that, buthe himself did not. Confucius usually brought issues back aroundto self-knowledge and self-improvement. The ruler Ji Kang-zi complainedabout all the thieves; but Confucius said that if he were freeof desire, they would not steal even if he paid them. Asked aboutthe treatment of parents, Confucius gave four different answersto four men, recommending obedience, behavior that does not makethe parents anxious, sincere feeling of respect, and proper demeanor.Questions and answers enabled Confucius to refine his teachings.He differentiated the good and the wise. The good love people,are tranquil like water, and enjoy long life. The wise know people,are active delighting in mountains, and enjoy happiness. Whenasked if injury should be repaid with virtue, Confucius said thatinjury should be repaid with justice so that virtue could be repaidwith virtue. When asked about the true gentleman, Confucius saidthat he cultivates himself carefully so as to help other people.In government one ought to lead by example and work hard for thepeople.Honesty and sincerity were essential for Confucius, and heinsisted on the correct use of language. Yet a lazy student helpedConfucius himself to learn that he must not only listen to whatpeople say and but also watch to see what they do. He suggestedcaution in speech: "Do not be too ready to speak of it, lestthe doing of it should prove to be beyond your powers."7Yet Confucius often used metaphors to express his meaning andliked to quote poetry as well. When the bold and daring Zilu askedhim whom he would take with him to command an army, Confuciusreplied, "Not the man who is ready to 'attack a tiger bare-handedor swim across a river' not caring whether he lived or died, butI should take someone who approaches difficulties with due caution,who likes to plan precisely and carry it out."8The brash Zilu could not believe the answer of Confucius thatthe first measure in administering a government is to correctthe language. So Confucius explained that if what is said is notin accordance with the truth of things, affairs cannot be carriedout to success; propriety and music will not flourish, and punishmentswill go astray. When punishments go astray, people do not knowhow to move hand or foot. The Analects concludes with thestatement by Confucius that a gentleman must understand the willof heaven, the rules of propriety, and be able to understand wordsin order to understand people.Confucius liked to use the examples of men to illustrate hislessons. He often referred to the legendary emperors Yao, Shun,and Yu to show how one could rule virtuously. He also admiredthose who humbly refused the sovereignty and renounced violencedespite their sufferings. He cited the historical examples ofDuke Wen of Jin for rising to an emergency but not following proprietyand Duke Huan of Qi for following propriety but failing in anemergency. Confucius credited Guan Zhong for helping Duke Huanto unite the states' rulers without using war-chariots, but hestill did not necessarily consider him good. Yet if it had notbeen for Guan Zhong, they might be folding their clothes in themanner of the barbarians. In history as in personal life, Confuciustended to focus on the ethical questions.In his own time he felt that one change could bring Qi to thelevel of Lu, and a single change would bring Lu to the way. Hebelieved that the common people could be made to follow the wayeven if they were not able to understand it. He pointed out thevirtues of ministers but never found anyone who was truly steadfast.Confucius believed that if the people were led by governmentalmeasures that kept order by laws and punishments, they would tryto avoid them but would lose all self-respect. Yet if they wereled by virtue with order kept by propriety, they would keep theirself-respect and set themselves right. Confucius observed thatif one's actions were motivated by profit, one would have manyenemies. Confucius did not like competition and pointed out thateven in an archery match the contenders were gentlemen at thedrinking-bout afterward. He believed that the ancients studiedfor self-improvement, but that now people learn in order to impresspeople.The goal of education for Confucius was not merely to get asalary nor was it to learn and remember as many things as possible.He said there was a thread which runs through all his teachings.The single saying he believed could be practiced all the timewas the saying about consideration known as the golden rule ofnot doing to others what you do not want them to do to you. Confuciuswas said to have taught culture, conduct, loyalty, and truthfulness.Through culture one may be stimulated by poetry, established incharacter by the rules of propriety, and perfected by music. Theextensive study of literature helps one not to violate the way.However, before culture came moral education. Confucius said,"Set your heart upon the way. Support yourself by its virtue.Rely on goodness. Find recreation in the arts."9 After ayouth had learned to behave well toward parents and elders, tobe cautious in giving promises and punctual in keeping them, tooverflow in love to all, and to cultivate the friendship of thegood, if one had energy to spare, then the cultural arts couldbe studied.A passage from the later text of the Li Ji has Confuciusexplaining the values of studying each of the classics as wellas the dangers of superficial exposure. When one is kind and gentle and simple-hearted, and yet not ignorant, we may be sure one is deep in the study of poetry. When one is broad-minded and acquainted with the past, and yet not filled with incorrect legends or stories of events, we may be sure one is deep in the study of history. When one is generous and shows a good disposition and yet not extravagant in one's personal habits, we may be sure one is deep in the study of music. When one is quiet and thoughtful and shows a sharp power of observation, and yet is not crooked, we may be sure that one is deep in the study of philosophy. When one is humble and polite and frugal in one's personal habits and yet not full of elaborate ceremonies, we may be sure one is deep in the study of propriety. And when one is cultivated in speech, ready with expressions and analogies and yet is not influenced by the picture of the prevailing moral chaos, we may be sure that one is deep in the study of the Spring and Autumn Annals.10Poetry not only stimulated the mind, but Confucius also saidit helped self-contemplation, taught the art of sociability, andshowed how to regulate feelings of resentment; from it one learnedthe duties of serving parents and the ruler as well as the namesof birds, beasts, and plants.For Confucius propriety enabled the ancient kings to establishharmony and beauty. Without propriety courtesy becomes tiresome,caution becomes timidity, daring insubordination, and straightforwardnessrudeness. It is better to be sparing than extravagant in ceremonies,and funerals are to be observed with deep sorrow not fear. A gentlemanproperly blends substance and refinement, for too much of thefirst is rude and of the latter pedantic. Yet Confucius believedthat anyone who followed the rules of propriety completely wouldbe thought a sycophant.Confucius always kept in mind the practical goals of education.He asked if one could recite the three hundred Odes butdid not know how to act in government or answer specific questionson a mission, of what use was extensive knowledge? The first stepis for one to correct one's own conduct, then one may assist ingoverning others. But if one cannot rectify oneself, how couldone ever rectify others? Wisdom may bring one into power, butgoodness is needed to secure that power. Without dignity one willnot be respected by the common people, and the rules of proprietymust also be followed. With sincere faith and the love of learningone should not be afraid to die in pursuing the way. Dangerousand chaotic states should be avoided. If the way does not prevail,it is better to hide, and the wealthy and honored ought to beashamed. When the way does prevail, one may show oneself and bebold in speech and action.When Ji Kang-zi asked Confucius if he should kill those whodo not have the way, the master said, "You are there to rule,not to kill. If you desire what is good, the people will be good."11In loving their children and people parents and rulers must exactsome effort from them, and in being loyal to parents and rulerschildren and the people should not refrain from admonishing theobject of their loyalty. In addition to attending strictly tobusiness and punctually observing promises, Confucius said anadministrator is economical in expenditure, loves the people,and uses the peasants' labor only at the proper seasons of theyear.Though religious, Confucius rarely discussed supernatural phenomenaor spirits. Until one has learned to serve humans, how can oneserve ghosts? he asked. Till one knows about the living, how canone know about the dead? Nevertheless when he did offer sacrificesto his ancestors he felt their spirits were present. Like Lao-zi,Confucius believed in following the way. How else could one getout of the house except through the door or find one's way intothe Inner Room? Knowing the way leads to loving it, and lovingit to taking delight in it.The Chinese word for virtue (de) implies power and somethingthat can be built up within oneself. Confucius said he never foundanyone whose desire for virtue was as strong as the sexual desirefor beauty. Virtue can be gained by doing the work first beforeconsidering the reward and by attacking the evil within oneselfrather than the evil in others. One of the great threats Confuciussaw to virtue was the confusion of clever talk, just as smallimpatiences can ruin great projects. For Confucius the good arenever unhappy, the wise never confused, and the brave never afraid.Courage, however, must not take priority over justice or elsean aristocrat would become an insurgent and a common person athief. The higher knowledge of wisdom is to know when one knowssomething and when one does not. "Whoever learns but doesnot think is lost; but whoever thinks but does not learn is indanger."12Love of learning is essential to the virtues, and Confuciusexplained how love of the six virtues can degenerate without thelove of learning. Love of goodness degenerates to simple-mindedness,love of knowledge to lack of principle, love of faithfulness toinjurious disregard of consequences, love of uprightness to harshness,love of courage to insubordination, and love of strong characterto mere recklessness. People's characters can be penetrated bylooking at their aims, how they pursue them, and what brings themcontent. Yet the ultimate value of observing others is to learnhow to equal those of worth and to examine the faults of othersin ourselves. Confucius said he never found a single person whocould see one's own faults and bring the charge against oneself.To have faults and not be trying to correct them is really tohave faults. Confucius advised people not to be afraid of admittingmistakes and amending their ways. He recommended friendships withthe upright, sincere, and well-informed, but he warned againstthose who flatter, have weak principles, and talk cleverly. Beneficialpleasures are studying ceremonies and music, discussing good pointsin others' conduct, and in having many wise friends. Detrimentalare profligate enjoyments, idle gadding about, and feasting.Confucius taught the middle way between extremes in regardto most virtues and considered moderation transcendent and rarein his time. Lavishness may lead to presumption and frugalityto meanness, though the latter is a less serious fault. The Confucianmiddle way was later elaborated on in the treatise called theDoctrine of the Mean or The Center of Harmony (ZhongYong).The greatest concept of virtue for Confucius was ren,which has been translated here as goodness but also means humanityor human-heartedness. A good person does not worry about not beingknown by others but rather seeks to know them. The good know howto like and dislike people, although the one whose heart is seton goodness will dislike no one, according to Confucius. Withoutgoodness one cannot endure adversity for long nor enjoy prosperityfor long. The good are also courageous, but the brave are notnecessarily good, just as the virtuous are eloquent, though theeloquent may not be virtuous. Confucius observed that faults fellinto patterns, and that one looked for faults only in order torecognize goodness. Confucius said he did not know whether RanYung was good, but he saw no need for him to be a good talker.Confucius felt that goodness meant courtesy in private life, diligencein public life, and loyalty in relationships. The good establishtheir own character and then help others to establish theirs.To be able to see others by what is within ourselves Confuciuscalled the art of goodness, and a ruler who could benefit thepeople and bring salvation to all he called a divine sage.The Chinese term zhun-zi originally meant the son ofa ruler and thus an aristocrat, but in the time of Confucius andperhaps due to his influence it came to imply a moral qualityand has been translated a superior man or a gentleman. Thus onecould attain higher social status through moral and educationaldevelopment. For Confucius a good man was always a gentleman,but not all gentlemen were good. A gentleman considers loyaltyand faithfulness fundamental and is not afraid of correcting hismistakes. We must acknowledge that as a male term this does indicatesexism, which seems to have been the case since there is no evidencethat Confucius had any female students, though he did speak tothe notorious Nan-zi.For Confucius the main concern for the gentleman was self-improvement.He is distressed at his own lack of capacity, never at the failureof others to recognize his merits. Confucius warned that the gentlemanshould guard against lust when one's physical powers are not settled,strife when they are full of vigor, and avarice when they aredeclining. A gentleman's nine cares are to see clearly, hear distinctly,be kind in looks, respectful in manner, sincere in words, anddiligent in work. When in doubt, he asks for information; whenangry, he considers the consequences; and when he sees a chancefor gain, he considers whether the pursuit would be right. A gentlemanis cautious with words and diligent in action lest his words outrunhis deeds. The superior person does not promote someone merelybecause of what one says nor does one reject sayings because ofwho said them.Sometimes Confucius contrasted the superior person to the inferior.The superior sets one's heart on virtue, the inferior on comfort.The superior think of sanctions, the inferior of favors. The superiorperson looks at a question from all sides without bias; the inferioris biased and can see only one point of view. The superior arenot for or against anything but follow what is right; the inferiorunderstand only profit. The gentleman calls attention to the goodpoints in others; the small person points out their defects. Agentleman makes demands on himself; the small person makes themon others. The superior people can influence those above them,but the inferior only those below them. The gentleman is calmand at ease; the inferior frets and is ill at ease. The gentlemanis dignified but not proud; the inferior are proud but not dignified.For Confucius the gentleman thinks of the way and its progress,not how he is going to make a living. He warns against dehumanization,saying that a gentleman is not an implement. A gentleman considersjustice essential, practices propriety, is modest and faithful.A gentleman acts before he speaks and then speaks according tohis action.Confucius warned against hypocrisy when he said that one withclever words and a pretentious manner is seldom good. He did notconsider himself truly good, wise, or courageous. He said he wasnot concerned that he had no office, only that he make himselfqualified for one. Confucius believed that a gentleman can withstandwant; only a small person is swept away by it. Rather than giveup his principles Confucius could be satisfied with coarse riceto eat, water to drink, and a bent arm for a pillow. He consideredwealth and honor obtained through injustice to be as remote fromhim as clouds in the sky. Confucius claimed that he could trya civil suit as well as anyone, but that it was better to bringit about so that there are no civil suits. Not given the opportunityto put his teachings into practice on a large scale, Confuciuslearned and taught others instead. As one of the most influentialethical teachers in history, the results of those teachings havebeen immeasurable.Followers of ConfuciusOnce a border guard at I asked to see Confucius, because hewas always allowed to see any true gentleman who was passing by.After talking with Confucius he told the disciples not to be disheartenedat their master's lack of office, because the way has not prevailedin the world for a long time. Yet he prophesied that heaven wasgoing to use their master as a bell with a wooden tongue.Confucius praised Yen Hui (521-481 BC) more than any of hisstudents for his cheerfulness in poverty and his mind's attentionto goodness. Yen Hui never said much, but the master knew he wasnot stupid from the quality of his conduct. Unfortunately YenHui died at a young age, and Confucius felt that no others werereally fond of learning.Ji Kang-zi became head of the administration of Lu in 492 BCand asked Confucius if Zilu, Zigong, and Ran Qiu were fit foroffice. The master recommended each of them. Zilu (542-480 BC)appointed a student Confucius considered slow as steward, andthe master said that it would ruin him. Zilu replied that onedoes not have to study books to be learned, to which Confuciusresponded that such talk made him detest glib talkers. Confuciuspredicted that the bold and daring Zilu would not die in bed,and in fact he bravely refused to flee Wei in loyalty to the Kungfamily and was killed trying to save the prince who had hiredhim.Confucius said that Ran Qiu (b. 522 BC) could be charged withthe duty of managing the military levies of a town with a thousandhouseholds or for a family of a hundred chariots, but he couldnot say whether he was good. Confucius advised Ran Qiu to actimmediately, because he had a tendency to hold himself back. Yethe cautioned Zilu against immediate action, because he tendedto be rash. When Ran Qiu collected higher taxes for the wealthyQi family, Confucius had him drummed out of his circle of students.Ran Qiu continued to serve the Qi family successfully for manyyears.Zigong (b. 520 BC) was eloquent, and Confucius described himas a sacrificial vessel of jade. In 487 BC a rebellion in Qi ledto some families attacking Lu. Confucius refused permission toZilu and two others to go out to Qi but granted the request ofZigong. Zigong persuaded Tian Chang that because of the probablerebellion it would be better for him to attack the stronger stateof Wu than the weaker Lu. Zigong then went to the King of Wu andconvinced him to attack Qi without fearing Yue, because he wentthere to get Yue to join Wu in the attack on Qi. Zigong then wentto Jin to warn them to be prepared for an attack from Wu if theydefeated Qi. This all came to pass; but then Yue launched a surpriseattack on Wu, killed their king and prime minister, and by 470BC had become protector. Although in a few years all of thesestates and Lu were undone, Zigong had preserved Lu for a while.Zigong was one of the first to go from state to state persuadingrulers which policy to follow, a practice that became common inthe ensuing Warring States Period. Zigong also became wealthybuying and selling in accordance with market changes and was onceprime minister in Lu and Wei before he died in Qi. Zigong is anexample of a common man who rose to fame and wealth through educationand his own abilities. According to Mencius, after Confucius died,Zigong went back to the religious sanctuary near his master'sgrave, built a house and mourned for an additional three yearsafter the traditional three-year mourning period, showing himselfto be perhaps the most devoted disciple.Zeng Shen (505-436 BC) was described as dull-witted by Confucius;Mencius wrote that when his house was going to be attacked, heordered his steward not to let anyone stay in the house, becausehe did not want the plants and trees harmed. Zeng was obviouslynot the humanist that Confucius was, and he seems to have emphasizedfilial piety even more than the master; the Classic of FilialPiety is often attributed to him. Zeng refused to join other disciplesin rendering the same respect to Yu Ro that they had given toConfucius even though he and Yu Ro were the only others besidesConfucius to be referred to as masters in the Analects.Confucius considered Ziyu (506-443 BC) well versed in cultureand learning, though once when he heard Ziyu singing and playinga string instrument, he said in jest that it was not necessaryto use an ox-cleaver to kill a chicken. Ziyu replied that a gentlemanlearns from the way to be kind, while an inferior person becomeseasier to command. When Ziyu was warden of the castle of Wu, Confuciusasked him if he had got hold of the right people there. LaterZiyu criticized the school of Zi Xia (507-425 BC) for practicingunimportant things like sprinkling and sweeping the ground, answeringsummons, replying to questions, and coming forward and retiring.Zi Xia defended his method of education by saying that theway of a gentleman must not be transmitted before the studentis ready. Confucius once found that he could discuss the odeswith Zi Xia, but in evaluating him he said Zi Xia had not reachedworthiness yet. Confucius told Zi Xia to practice the ruof the gentleman, not that of the common people. The originalmeaning of this term ru is unclear. Waley suggested thatit may have meant unwarlikeness in contrast to the cowardice ofthe inferior. Eventually this was the term that was used to referto the followers of the Confucian philosophy. In the first chapterof the Analects Zi Xia is quoted as saying that one whotreats betters as betters, serves father and mother with all hisstrength and his prince with his life, and with his friends istrue to his word may be called educated.Zizhang (503-447 BC) was from a humble family in Lu, studiedwith Confucius and traveled with him in spite of the difficulties.He wrote one of the master's maxims down on his sash so as toalways have it with him. The writing down of Confucius' teachingsin the Analects is what enabled his philosophy to be passedon, but the authorship of that work is unknown. The historianSima Qian listed the names of seventy-seven disciples of Confuciusthat he did not consider dubious. Though there is no indicationthat Confucius ever spoke to great crowds, it is clear that histeachings took hold among some devoted disciples. A document fromthe third century BC lists the names of six men who improved theirlives through education: two had studied with Confucius, one withZi Xia, and two with Mo-zi. Confucian tradition credits Zisi,the grandson of Confucius, with writing the Da Xue (HigherEducation) and the Zhong Yong (Center of Harmony),but there is no evidence these texts appeared for at least twocenturies.MenciusThe only other person in China to have his name commonly Latinizedbesides Confucius is Meng-zi (Mencius), who is thought to havelived from 371 to 289 BC. His father died when he was three, andhis mother was said to have moved from the vicinity of a cemeteryand a market to a school, because her son imitated their activities.Another story tells how Mencius had walked in on his wife in aprivate room as she was sitting in an improper way; when Menciuscomplained, his mother persuaded him not to leave his wife, becausehe had not announced his coming or kept his eyes down when entering.In his one-page biography of Meng Ke (Mencius), Sima Qian wrotethat he was from the state of Zuou, studied under a disciple ofZisi (grandson of Confucius), and having mastered the way wentto Qi to serve King Xuan. Mencius also went to Liang, where KingHui found the views of Mencius impractical and remote from realitybefore he fully listened to them. This was when Qin had enhancedits wealth and military strength by putting Lord Shang in power.Chu and Wei had also won wars by putting Wu Qi in charge of theirgovernments. King Wei and King Xuan made Qi dominant by employingSun-zi, Tian Ji and others. This was the middle of the WarringStates period when military alliances were continually being formedand changed in relation to the powerful western state of Qin.Mencius preached the traditional virtues of the three dynastiesbut never received a sympathetic hearing. According to the historianhe then retired and with the help of his disciple Wan Zhang andothers wrote the Mencius in seven books and commented onthe classical books of Odes and Documents whiledeveloping the ideas of Confucius.The first book of Mencius begins by describing his visitto King Hui of Liang in Wei; he ruled from 370 to 319 BC. Theaged king assumed that Mencius came a long way because he believedhe could profit his state. Mencius replied that concern for profitis what imperils a state; all that matters is what is good andright. King Hui said he had worked hard in governing and askedwhy his population had not increased. Mencius told him that hewas too fond of war. If he did not interfere with the busy seasonsin the fields, then the people would have more grain to eat. Ifhe did not allow nets with too fine a mesh to be used in the largeponds, there would be more fish to eat. If the cutting down oftrees with axes was limited, there would be enough timber. Bycaring for education in village schools and teaching proper humanrelationships, humans would respect each other and their king.But failing to garner surplus food or distribute it when peopleare starving, saying it is the fault of the harvest, is like killinga man and blaming it on the weapon. Good government reduces punishmentand taxation, gets the people to plow deeply and weed promptly,and helps the able to learn.The king of Liang asked Mencius how the empire could be settled,and he replied that one who is not fond of killing could uniteit; but among the shepherds of people at that time there was notone doing so. Mencius said that King Hui could become a true kingby bringing peace to the people; but he was failing because, hedid not practice kindness. It was not that he lacked the ability,but he had refused to act in the proper way. Mencius knew thatthe king wanted to extend his territory, rule over the centralkingdoms, and bring peace to the barbarians on the borders; buthis way of going about it was like looking for a fish by climbinga tree. Not only was it unlikely he would find it; but in hiscase it was worse, because his way caused disaster as well. Ifhe practiced good government, the office seekers would want tobe in his court, the farmer to till his land, the merchants touse his marketplace, the travelers to go by his roads, and allthose who hate their rulers would come to him with their complaints.Mencius said that only a gentleman can keep a constant heart;the people tend to lose constancy and go astray, falling intoexcesses. To punish them then is like setting a trap for them.A bright ruler makes sure they have what they need before he drivesthem toward the good; thus it is easy for them to follow him.To accomplish this he must go back to the fundamentals of nurturingthe people's needs and providing education.When King Hui died, his successor seemed to Mencius to lackdignity; so he went to advise Xuan, who had become King of Qiin 320 BC. Mencius suggested that King Xuan share his enjoymentswith his people; for when a king's park is open to the people,they consider it small; but when they are prohibited from enteringit, they naturally think it is too large. King Xuan asked howto promote good relations with other states. Mencius said thatby submitting to a state smaller than his one delights in heavenand enjoys possession of the empire, and in submitting to a largerstate one is in awe of heaven and enjoys the possession of one'sown state. Mencius told how Duke Jing followed wise advice andopened his granaries for the poor; another ruler cared for theaged and orphans.Although King Xuan said these things were well spoken, he couldnot put them into practice, because he loved money and women.When Mencius asked the king what should be done if someone entrustedhis wife and family to the care of a friend, and they were allowedto suffer cold and hunger, the king said he should break withhis friend; if the marshal of the guards could not control hisguards, he should be replaced. Yet when Mencius asked what shouldbe done if the whole realm is ill-governed, the king turned tohis attendants and changed the subject. Mencius advised that whenthe attendants all give the same recommendation and the counselorsand everyone else does also, it still should be investigated tosee if what they say is true. In this way good and wise men maybe appointed, and unsuitable officers may be removed.King Xuan asked if regicide was permitted, since Shang founderTang banished Jieh, and King Wu marched against the last Shangking; but Mencius responded that these rulers so mutilated humanitythat they should be called outcasts not kings. In 315 BC the kingof Yen abdicated and appointed his prime minister, causing a revoltin Yen. Mencius was asked if it was all right to march on Yen.He said yes, because the king had no right to give Yen to another;but he explained that he was not encouraging Qi to invade Yen,because only a heaven-appointed officer had the right to do so.After Qi invaded Yen, King Xuan asked Mencius if he should annexYen. Mencius said that if annexing it would please its people,then it could be done; but if annexing it antagonized its people,then he should not. Qi annexed Yen, and most of the feudal lordsplanned to aid Yen. King Xuan asked Mencius how he should meetthe threat. Mencius referred to the example of Tang, founder ofthe Shang dynasty, and then gave the following advice: Now when you went to punish Yen which practiced tyranny over its people, the people thought you were going to rescue them from water and fire, and they came to meet the army, bringing baskets of rice and bottles of drink. How can it be right for you to kill the old and bind the young, destroy the ancestral temples and appropriate the valuable vessels? Even before this, the whole Empire was afraid of the power of Qi. Now you double your territory without practicing good government. This is to provoke the armies of the whole Empire. If you hasten to order the release of the captives, old and young, leave the valuable vessels where they are, and take your army out after setting up a ruler in consultation with the men of Yen, it is still not too late to halt the armies of the Empire.13Mencius later explained that he never intended to stay longin Qi; but he was unable to leave because the war broke out. DukeMu of Zuou asked Mencius what he should do after thirty-threeof his officers died without the people helping them. Menciusrecalled that in the years of bad harvest nearly a thousand ofhis people had suffered in spite of full granaries, because hisofficials had not informed him of what was happening. Zeng-zi'swarning that what you mete out will be paid back to you came topass. Mencius said the Duke should not hold a grudge against thepeople, because if he practices good government, they will lovetheir superiors and even die for them.Mencius advised Duke Wen of the small state of Teng to do goodand hope that heaven will grant success. In starting an enterprisea gentleman can only leave behind a tradition that can be carriedon. He cited the case of a leader of Pin, who told his peoplethat the Di tribes wanted their land, and so rather than bringharm to them he was leaving. The people of Bin realized that hewas a good man and flocked after him as if to market. Others decidedto stay and defend their land. These were the two choices.Mencius declared that the appearance of a true king was nevermore overdue than in his time when the people suffered under suchtyrannical governments. He did not just admire the ancients; hebelieved that twice as much could be done in his time with halfthe effort. For Mencius ethical good was at the center of thevital force in the human body called qi. The will directsthis energy and when it nourishes it with integrity, the qiunites what is right and the way. He recommended a middle pathbetween too much meddling and negligence. He told of a man whourged his rice plants to grow by pulling them out too soon. Theother extreme is not even bothering to weed. Mencius could readcharacter from one's words. He could see the blind in their biasedwords, the ensnared in their immoderate words, those who havestrayed in their heretical words, and those at their wits' endin their evasive words.Along with the legendary sages, Bo Yi and Yi Yin, he admiredConfucius most of all. They were capable of winning the homageof the feudal lords, but if they had to kill one innocent personin order to gain the empire, none of them would have consentedto do so. People only submit to force unwillingly, because theyare not strong enough to resist; but when they submit to the transforminginfluence of ethics, they do so sincerely with admiration in theirhearts. Goodness brings honor, but cruelty disgrace. When thegood and wise rule, the able are employed; in times of peace thelaws can be explained to the people, but the ruler indulging inpleasures and indolence courts disaster. If the good and wiseare honored and the able are employed, gentlemen will come tothe court. If goods are exempted from taxation in the marketplaceand premises are exempted from land taxes, traders will come.If there is no fee at border stations, travelers will come. Iftillers pay no land tax but help in the public fields, farmerswill come.Mencius believed that no one is devoid of a heart sensitiveto the suffering of others and used the example of a baby aboutto fall into a well. Anyone will naturally be moved by compassionto prevent the tragedy, not to get into the good graces of theparents nor to win praise nor because one dislikes to hear a childcry. Whoever is devoid of a heart of compassion and shame andright or wrong is not human. From this heart comes goodness, duty,courtesy, propriety, and wisdom. Anyone lacking these is a slave.Practicing the good is like archery: when one fails to hit themark, one must correct oneself. If others do not respond to yourlove, look into your own humanity. If others fail to respond toyour governing, consider your own wisdom. If others do not returnyour courtesy, look into your own respect. In other words, wheneveryou fail to achieve your purpose, look into yourself.The best person, like the great Shun, is not afraid to learnfrom others, and after doing good oneself goes on to help othersdo good. Mencius believed that the good and talented ought tohelp those who are less so. Only one who will not do some thingsis capable of doing great things. He warned people to think ofthe consequences before pointing out the shortcomings of others.Doing what is right was paramount for Mencius, as he believedthat a great person might not always keep one's word or see actionsthrough to the end, if these were not right. A superior personfinds the way in oneself, is at ease with it, and draws deeplyfrom it, finding its source wherever one turns. Those who followthe way have many supporters; those who do not have few. At courtrank is exalted, and in the village age is respected; but forassisting the world and governing people virtue is best. Menciusaccused the governor of Ping Lu of refusing to report to dutyseveral times, because he allowed his people to starve duringa famine.Mencius recommended that if farmers help each other to keepwatch, and nurse each other in illness, they will live in loveand harmony. The way cannot be bent to please others. No one hasever straightened others by bending oneself. Mencius mentionedthat the current teachings in the empire were those of Yang Zhuand Mo-zi. Yang Zhu taught everyone for oneself, and Mo-zi advocatedlove without making any preference for family. Mencius felt thiswas no better than beasts. Mencius believed that love of one'sparents was the first step, which could lead to peace in the empire.Pleasing one's parents begins by being true to oneself, whichdepends on understanding goodness. By pleasing one's parents onecan win the trust of friends, the confidence of superiors, andthus govern the people.Mencius referred to Confucius criticizing Ran Qiu for agreeingto raise taxes. How much more would he reject those who wage waron behalf of rulers to gain land and fill the plains with thedead! Mencius called this showing the land how to devour humanflesh. For Mencius a great person retains the heart of a child.He felt that even goodness could not be used to dominate people.One can only succeed by using goodness for the welfare of thepeople, and one can never gain the empire without their heart-feltadmiration. The good retain their hearts and love others, andthe courteous respect others. Sages may live in retirement orin the world, but they always keep their integrity intact. Theheart of compassion is good; the heart of shame is dutiful; theheart of respect appropriate; and the heart of right and wrongwise. Mencius said, "Seek and you will find it; let go andyou will lose it."14 People become different because of whatensnares their hearts. The sage is merely the one who discoverswhat is right and reasonable in the heart.Mencius observed that once the trees had been luxuriant onOx Mountain; but being near a city, they were constantly loppedby axes. With rain and dew new shoots came out; but then cattleand sheep grazed upon the mountain, leaving it bald. Is this thenature of the mountain? Similarly humans lose their true hearts,just as the trees were lopped off day by day. Humans rest at night,but each day dissipates what has been gained. When what was originalis no longer preserved, they become like animals. Anything willgrow with the right nourishment, but without it anything willwither away. Goodness is the heart, and conscientiousness is thecorrect road. When the heart strays, people often fail to go afterit; yet when chickens stray, they will retrieve them. For Menciusthe sole concern of learning is to go after this strayed heart.People love all the parts of their person. However, the smallperson harms the more important in seeking what is less valuable,while the great person nurtures the parts of greater importance.The heart can think and tell the difference. This is what heavenhas given humans. But if one does not think, one will not findthe answer.Mencius compared goodness to water, which can overcome thecruelty of fire. Some try to put out a cartload of burning woodwith a cup of water and then say water cannot overcome fire. Todo this is to place one on the side of the most cruel; in theend they perish. The way is like a broad road that is not difficultto find. The problem is that people simply do not look for it.Those who do look for it will find enough teachers. Once Menciusmet a man, who was going to Chu to persuade them that war wasunprofitable. Mencius commended his purpose but suggested thatby putting profit first ethics may be excluded, and the resultwill be chaos. By placing the ethics of what is best for all beforethem all human relationships can be made mutually beneficial.Mencius explained how morality had degenerated from the threeancient emperors to the five protectors of the feudal lords tothe current feudal lords and their counselors, each of which offendedagainst those who came before. The emperor used to inspect thedomain, and the feudal lords reported on their duties. Those whoneeded it were given aid. In the feudal system lords were rewardedwith land. If the land was neglected, the good and wise overlooked,and grasping men put in power, then the lord was reprimanded.Thus the emperor punished but did not attack, while the feudallords attack but do not punish. The protectors then intimidatedthe feudal lords to attack other feudal lords.The most illustrious of the protectors, Duke Huan of Qi, gotthe feudal lords to agree to a pledge which included first, notpunishing dutiful sons nor putting aside heirs nor elevating concubines;second, honoring the good and wise and training the capable; third,respecting the aged and being kind to the young, guests, and travelers;fourth, not making offices hereditary, nor letting one man holdmore than one office nor allowing a feudal lord to execute a counselorsolely on his own authority; and fifth, not allowing diversionof dikes nor prohibiting the sale of rice. Today, complained Mencius,the feudal lords violate all of these five injunctions. Yet Menciusconcluded that the crime of encouraging a ruler to evil deedsis small compared to the pandering to his unspoken evil desires.Thus the counselors of the time offend against the feudal lords.Mencius held that a good person would not even take from oneperson to give to another, let alone seek territory at the costof human lives. To enrich a ruler, who is neither attracted tothe way nor good to the people, is like enriching a tyrant. Whenabout to place a great responsibility on a person, heaven maytest one with hardship and frustrated efforts in order to toughenone's nature and shore up deficiencies. People usually only mendtheir ways after making mistakes. Those whose minds are frustratedlearn how to innovate.Mencius believed that those who understand their own naturewill know heaven; by retaining the heart and nurturing their naturethey serve heaven. He found no greater joy than finding upon self-examinationthat he is being true to himself. He taught the golden rule oftrying your best to treat others as you would wish to be treatedyourself as the shortest path to goodness. The best person doesnot abandon what is right in adversity nor depart from the wayin success. In obscurity one can perfect one's own person; inprominence one can perfect the whole empire as well. For Menciusgood government was not as important as good education, becausethe people fear good government; but they love good education.Good government wins their wealth, but good education wins theirhearts. Mencius believed it contrary to goodness to kill evenone person and contrary to justice to take what one is not entitledto. The wise person knows everything but considers urgent onlywhat demands attention. The good person loves everyone but devotesoneself in close association with the good and wise.Mencius pointed out how Duke Hui of Liang extended his ruthlessnessfrom those he did not love to those he did by sending to war eventhe young men he loved, whereas a good person extends one's loveto those one does not love. Mencius could find no just wars inthe Spring and Autumn Era but only peers trying to punish oneanother by war. He considered those who thought of themselvesas military experts as grave criminals. The trouble with people,he thought, was that they leave their own fields to weed others'fields, being exacting toward others but indulgent toward themselves.Like the sages of India, he recommended nurturing the heart byreducing the number of one's desires.Xun-ziXun-zi (Hsun-tzu) was born about 310 BC in the state of Zhao,but at the age of fifteen he went to study in a center of learningin Qi. There Xun-zi probably wrote his books criticizing the ideasof Shen Buhai, Shen Dao, Zhuang-zi, Mo-zi, and the "RectifyingTheses" aimed at the logicians. After Qi attacked and absorbedthe state of Song in 286 BC, Xun-zi tried to persuade King Minand the Lord of Mengchang that their policies were excessive andwould lead to doom if they persisted in them. The Lord of Mengchangturned against King Min, and Qi was invaded by the armies of Yen,Qin, Wei, and Zhao in 284 BC. The scholars of the academy in Qihad to flee.Xun-zi went to the southern state of Chu, which was sufferingunder the domination of the powerful Qin state. As Qin took overportions of Chu, Xun-zi learned that power must be tempered withjustice, and his writings there emphasized education. After abouteight years in Chu, Xun-zi returned to the academy in Qi, wherehe became the most honored scholar. Xun-zi's writing in this periodseems to have been influenced by Daoism, though he criticizedsome of Lao-zi's ideas. About 265 BC Xun-zi was slandered andbegan to travel to other courts such as Qin and Zhao to give adviceas a scholar, though he was never allowed to govern. Xun-zi leftQin when he was about fifty.About a year after Qin's devastating defeat of Xun-zi's nativeZhao in 260 BC in which 400,000 soldiers were buried alive, Xun-zihad a discussion with the Lord of Linwu in the presence of KingXiaocheng of Zhao. Xun-zi argued that what was most importantis winning the support of the people so that they can be unified.He claimed that military deception is of no use against a goodperson and a state that is not torn apart. He observed that Qinused a system of rewards and punishments to build up their strengthand expand their territory with repeated victories in the lastfour generations. Xun-zi believed that people are deceived byusing such military means and profit motivations, while the wayto unite them is by principles of propriety and moral education.When deception meets deception, the battle may go either way;but when deception meets unity, unity is sure to win.Xun-zi recommended practical arts for regulating military commandsthrough authority, consistent and appropriate rewards and punishments,alert troop movements, complete reports on the enemy, and proceedingin battle only on the basis of thorough understanding. The fiveexpedients are not worrying about one's rank, not pressing toohard for victory, not being too stern with the men nor despisingthe enemy, not thinking only of gain but of loss as well, andusing supplies liberally. The general may refuse to obey the commandof his ruler if he is told to take up an untenable position, attackwithout hope of victory, or deceive the common people. The king'sarmy should not kill old men and boys nor destroy crops nor seizethose who retire without a fight, but it does not forgive thosewho resist. It does not punish the common people but those wholead them astray.A true king according to Xun-zi does not make war but carriesout punitive expeditions. He does not lay siege to a guarded citynor attack soldiers who resist strongly. He does not massacrea city nor move his army in secret, and he does not keep his soldiersin the field for more than one season. When the king asked himwhy a good man would take up arms at all if it is only to contendfor spoil, Xun-zi replied that a good person loves others andhates to see men do them harm. He only takes up arms to put anend to violence and do away with harm, not to contend for spoil.Li Si, who studied with Xun-zi and later became prime ministerfor Qin and helped to establish its empire, said to Xun-zi thatQin won victories not by goodness and justice but by taking advantageof opportunities. Xun-zi responded that Qin lives in terror andapprehension lest the rest of the world unite to defeat them.This superficial model is the way to bring disorder to the worldin a degenerate age. Xun-zi summarized his policies this way: Lead the people by magnifying the sound of virtue, guide them by making clear ritual principles, love them with the utmost loyalty and good faith, give them a place in the government by honoring the worthy and employing the able, and elevate them in rank by bestowing titles and rewards. Demand labor of them only at the proper season, lighten their burdens, unify them in harmony, nourish them and care for them as you would little children. Then, when the commands of government have been fixed and the customs of the people unified, if there should be those who depart from the customary ways and refuse to obey their superiors, the common people will as one man turn upon them with hatred, and regard them with loathing, like an evil force that must be exorcised. Then and only then should you think of applying penalties.15Xun-zi explained how a neighboring state may be annexed byvirtue, by force, or by wealth. In using virtue the customs ofthe people are respected so that the people follow willingly,and power is increased. But using force wastes strength on militarymeans and weakens the state, while using wealth depletes the materialresources of the state. He pointed out that Qi annexed Song butcould not hold on to it, as Wei took it over; Yen managed to annexQi but lost it to Tian Dan, the Qi general; part of Han joinedZhao, but Qin took it away.Xun-zi arrived at the court of Zhao just after the Lord ofPingyuan's state had been rescued by the Lord of Xinling and hisarmy from Wei and also an army from Chu in a defeat of Qin thatdelayed for thirty years their imperialist conquest. The primeminister of Chu, the Lord of Chunshen, appointed Xun-zi magistrateof Lanling but was persuaded to remove the philosopher from officebecause of the fear that his good government would lead to a mandatefrom heaven for him to rule larger areas, threatening the Lordof Chunshen's own power. However, another rhetorician convincedthis prime minister that he should ask Xun-zi to return to hispost, because he is one of the worthiest men in the world. Inreply Xun-zi sent a letter saying that a leper pities a king,because a ruler who has robbed and murdered suffers mental anguish,while a leper suffers only physically. Xun-zi composed a poemcomplaining of one who considers the blind clear-sighted, thedeaf keen of hearing, and who considers danger security, askingfinally "Why did I ever have anything in common with him?"16Nevertheless Chunshen invited him to return once more, and Xun-zitook up his post in Lanling until Chunshen was assassinated in238 BC.His two most famous students, Li Si and Han Fei-zi, had lefthim by then; Li Si sought an office in Qin in 247 BC, and HanFei-zi soon after went to present his views to the king in Qin,where he died in 233 BC. Li Si persuaded the king of Qin not tobanish all foreigners, and after Qin conquered all of China in221 BC he was a high minister two years later and chancellor by213 BC. Li Sih warnings in one'sheart. This philosophy led to a more superstitious attitude towardsuch things as eclipses and weather patterns.Dong Zhongshu believed that humans are the only creatures capableof practicing goodness and justice, but they can also be greedy.For Dong one must rectify oneself to be just, and love othersto be good. Love needs the discrimination of wisdom, and wisdomneeds love to be translated into action. Dong Zhongshu taughtthat the good person loves people, harmonizes likes and dislikesin human relations, does not harbor hatred or a desire to hurt,does not conceal or evade, is not jealous, does not let desireslead to sadness or worry, and does not do anything treacherous,cunning, or depraved. Confucius and his followers, in my opinion, offered a marvelousethical philosophy in warring and chaotic times that mostly ignoredtheir advice. Although sexist and patriarchal as their times,the universal ethical values and methods of attaining them arewell thought out and available to everyone. The detailed regulationsof the rules of propriety could become rigid and tyrannical tofree expression if they are slavishly followed, and the emphasison the traditions of past heroes and excessive respect for elderscould also lead to a rigid social culture dominated by traditionand the older generation. Yet this tendency was already in Chineseculture before Confucius, whose ethicalwith a respectful person and its principles witha reasonable person. The best person trains oneself to see, hear,and think only what is right even more than the objects of thesenses. The best are not subverted by power or the love of profitnor swayed by the masses or the world. Through constancy in virtueone can order oneself and then respond to others.Xun-zi emphasized self-improvement. Whoever censures you isyour teacher; whoever approves you is your friend; but whoeverflatters you is your enemy. Clinging to profit and turning asidefrom what is right Xun-zi called depravity. If your will is welldisciplined, you may hold up your head before wealth and eminence.A person of breeding loves the law and puts it into effect. Agentleman has a firm will and embodies it in conduct. A sage haskeen insight that never fails. If you treat old people well anddo not press the already hard pressed and do good in secret andseek no reward for kindness, both sages and unworthy people willbe with you, and would heaven leave such a person to perish? Thoughpoor and hard pressed, the gentleman is benevolent; though richand eminent, he is respectful; though at ease, he is not indolent;though weary, he still values good form; he does not take awaytoo much in anger nor give too much in joy.Xun-zi contrasted the gentleman and the petty person. Whenthe gentleman is courageous, he reveres heaven and follows itsway. When faint-hearted, he follows moral duty. When knowledgeable,he understands the interconnections of phenomena. When ignorant,he is honest, diligent and follows a model. When followed, herestrains himself with respect. When not followed, he regulateshimself. When he is happy, he harmonizes with others. When sad,he maintains inner peace. When successful, he maintains good form.When encountering hardship, he is frugal and careful. When courageous,the petty person is indolent and haughty; when faint-hearted,lecherous and subversive; when knowledgeable, predatory and clandestine;when ignorant, malicious and rebellious; when followed, imperious;when not followed, resentful and underhanded; when happy, frivolous;when sad, despondent; when successful, proud and unfair; and whenencountering hardship, negligent and lazy.Xun-zi described how a person may nurture one's mind with truthfulness,uphold the principle of humanity, and behave with justice. Thusgiving humanity form, it produces transmutation in accord withnatural order. But those who lack truthfulness will not be individuals;their characters will not be given form; and the common peoplewill never follow them unless with suspicion. The wise throughtruthfulness may transmute the people; but without it fathersand sons drift apart, and rulers are considered base.Xun-zi delineated six productions. Public spirit produces clearunderstanding, but partisanship produces obscurity. Straightforwarddiligence produces success, but deceit produces obstructions.Honesty produces perspicacity, but boasting produces self-delusion.Like the Epicureans, Xun-zi found that the desirable may alsobring what is detestable, and what is beneficial may eventuallyinvolve harm. Therefore one must maturely calculate the relativemerits and liabilities in choosing. Human calamities tend to resultfrom prejudices. For Xun-zi the courage of the gentleman is stayingwith what is just, not being swayed by the exigencies of the moment,not looking for one's own profit, but considering the interestsof the whole state and assisting in realizing them, and weighingthe threat of death by upholding moral duty.Xun-zi wrote that Mo-zi knew how to elevate merit and utility,frugality and economy, but he ignored gradations of rank and status,which Xun-zi considered essential to social order. He also criticizedthose who follow Zi-si and Mencius as deluded. Xun-zi believedthat one may develop inner power (virtue) by not using honor tobe arrogant nor intelligence to place others in difficulty norintellect to gain precedence over others nor courage to causeinjury. When not knowing, ask others; when lacking ability, study;and even when having ability, yield to others. For Xun-zi learningmeans not only understanding but carrying it out in action. Thewise base their conduct on goodness and justice, making one'sspeech accord with action.In governing Xun-zi recommended promoting the worthy, dismissingthe incompetent, punishing the incorrigibly evil, and teachingthe average people. Proposals ought to be weighed in terms ofjustice and harmoniousness, but to show favoritism and partisanfeeling is the worst thing one can do. Xun-zi believed that ifeveryone is treated equally, conflict will result from insufficientgoods. Distinctions were set up so that those above could watchover those below, but he did not seem to rationalize this withthe principle of justice. Nevertheless he believed that the commonpeople should be treated with kindness by capable governors, encouragingfilial piety and brotherly affection by looking after orphansand widows and assisting the poor. When this is done, the gentlemenmay occupy their positions in safety. However, if the state'scoffers are heaped up while the people are impoverished, the statewill not be able to protect itself at home nor fight its enemiesabroad.A king works to acquire people, a dictator to acquire allies,and a despot to acquire territory. The militarist, who uses mightto conquer cities, inflicts great injury on people in other states,who will want to fight him; but he also harms his own people,who will hate him and will not want to fight for him. Thus helives in constant peril. Xun-zi did not believe that secrecy wasbeneficial to the way of the ruler, because the superior shouldelucidate the standard, be correct, diligent, impartial, and honest.Xun-zi warned against cutting down trees and injuring plantsand fishing in the lakes at the wrong time lest life be destroyedand growing things be injured. Foreseeing an ecological vision,he concluded that the wise found every move on unity. Those whochoose well control others, but those who choose badly will becontrolled by others. Xun-zi held that war is caused by desirefor fame or territory or by anger; but a good ruler may gain fameor territory without fighting, and no one is angry with him. Thewicked arise, because the rulers do not honor justice. The justperson is in accord with people inwardly and things outwardly,at peace with those above and in harmony with the people below.Perhaps influenced by the mysticism of Lao-zi, Xun-zi saw thework of heaven as bringing to completion without acting and obtainingwithout seeking. When the work of heaven is established, thenthe human form is whole and one's spirit is born, resulting inthe emotions of love and hate, delight and anger, sorrow and joy.The heart dwells in the center and governs the five senses. Thewise cherish heavenly nourishment, obey heavenly dictates, nourishheavenly emotions, understanding what is to be done and what isnot to be done. The gentleman does not stop acting, because thepetty carp and clamor, any more than heaven suspends winter, becausepeople dislike cold. The gentleman focuses on what is in his power,living in the present and remembering the past, refined in purpose,rich in virtuous action, and clear in understanding. The pettyput aside their own power and long for heaven's power. Xun-ziwas skeptical of heavenly portents, fearing rather human portentssuch as poor plowing, bad weeding, and evil government. To setaside human concerns and long for what belongs to heaven is tomistake the nature of all things. Xun-zi considered ceremoniesas markers of the way to guide the people.Xun-zi offered this succinct critique of some other philosophers: Shen-zi could see the advantages of holding back, but not the advantages of taking the lead. Lao-zi could see the advantages of humbling oneself, but not the advantages of raising one's station. Mo-zi could see the advantages of uniformity, but not those of diversity. Song-zi could see the advantages of having few desires, but not of having many. If everyone holds back and no one takes the lead, then there will be no gate to advancement for the people. If everyone humbles himself and no one tries to improve his station, then distinctions between eminent and humble become meaningless. If there is only uniformity and no diversity, then the commands of government can never be carried out. If there is a lessening of desires and never an increase, then there will be no way to educate and transform the people.17Xun-zi placed great importance on li (propriety, ceremonies,ritual). He explained that the ancients found desires led to conflictand disorder if they were not regulated by principles of proprietyand justice. He believed that social distinctions need to be madebetween the eminent and humble, elder and younger, rich and poor,and the important and unimportant. The wise know how to thinkand be steadfast, but he also felt they have a love of ritual.Both the outer form and inner meaning must be considered alongwith the inner feelings and outer practical use. A gentleman wouldbe ashamed to treat even a slave in a way that offends the heart.He wrote, "Rites trim what is too long and stretch out whatis too short, eliminate surplus and repair deficiency, extendthe forms of love and reverence, and step by step bring to fulfillmentthe beauties of proper conduct."18Xun-zi also loved music, which he called joy. Bad music hefelt could be a source of danger and disgrace. The wise kingsfound joy in proper music, because it could make the hearts ofpeople good by deeply influencing them and reforming their ways.Xun-zi was concerned that people become obsessed by a smallcorner of truth and fail to comprehend its over-all principles.He believed that people sincerely seek what is proper, but theyare led astray by their prejudices and bad habits. He criticizedMo-zi for being obsessed by utilitarian considerations, Shen Buhaifor being obsessed by the power of circumstance, and Zhuang-zifor being obsessed by thoughts of heaven. Utilitarian considerationsmake the way wholly a matter of material profit; thinking onlyof circumstance makes it wholly a matter of expedience; and thinkingonly of heaven makes the way wholly a matter of harmonizing withnatural forces. However, he considered Confucius good, wise, andfree of obsession. People understand the way by using the mindto understand through its emptiness, unity, and stillness. Yetthe mind also stores things up, is diversified, and constantlymoving. The intellect can use memory, which does not hinder newimpressions. The mind is the ruler of the body and the masterof its intelligence. By its own will it prohibits or permits,rejects or accepts, goes or stops; the mind decides what is right.In a time of much logical debate, Xun-zi attempted to "rectifynames" by defining his terms. What comes from birth he callednature. Likes and dislikes, delights and angers, griefs and joysof nature he called emotions. When emotions arise, the mind makesa choice among them through thought. Applied decisions he calledconscious activity. Action based on profit is business, and actionbased on duty is moral conduct. Knowledge that is applied practicallyis called ability. Injuries to one's nature are sickness, andunforeseen occurrences are fate. Clarifying terms so that theycorrespond to reality he considered essential to social order.Because he believed that everyone does what they think is goodand rejects what they think is bad, anyone who understands theway will abide by it. Anyone who would exchange the desires ofcountless years for a momentary gratification simply cannot doarithmetic. Those who endanger their bodies, afflict their minds,and behave recklessly, when they want health, joy, and honor,have allowed the self to become the slave of things.The main difference Xun-zi had with Mencius was that he believedthat human nature is evil and that goodness is the result of consciousactivity. Desire for profit comes from the nature of the emotions,but one can be transformed by instruction from a teacher and guidanceby propriety. Courtesy and humility are contrary to the emotionalnature and must be learned by conscious action. Thus the wisetransform their nature by conscious activity to set up ritualprinciples and regulations. Xun-zi feared that if the authorityof the ruler was eliminated so that the order of ritual principlesand laws and standards with their punishments were rejected, thenthe powerful would exploit the weak, the many would terrorizethe few, and the whole world would become chaotic and mutuallydestructive. Nevertheless he believed that everyone could understandgoodness, justice, and ritual principles and put them into practiceif one associates with good people and is properly taught.In one of his poems Xun-zi lamented that the world is not wellordered. The military is promoted in the name of military preparedness.Those who follow the way and its virtue are slandered by many.The humane are degraded and reduced to poverty, while proud andviolent men usurp and tyrannize at will. Xun-zi believed thatwhen a country is about to flourish it is certain to value itsteachers and give great importance to education, and its lawsand standards will be preserved; but when it is on the verge ofdecay, teachers are treated with contempt, the people are smuglyself-satisfied, and the laws and standards will be allowed togo to ruin. In the final eulogy at the end of Xun-zi's book, acommentator explained that Xun-zi had a harder time than Confucius,because he was oppressed by a chaotic age that was intimidatedby threats of stern punishment, as rulers faced the aggressionof Qin. Ritual and moral principles were not observed; the humanewere degraded and constrained or ridiculed and derided; and thetransforming effects of teaching were not brought to completion.Later Confucian WorksIn addition to the five ancient classics of Confucius' time,from the fourth to the first centuries BC many shorter Confucianwritings were collected together in the Li Ji, which becamethe most important classic of Li (propriety, rites). Inaddition to the Analects of Confucius (Lun Yu) andthe books of Mencius and Xun-zi, another minor Confucian classicwas the Book of Filial Piety (Xiao Jing), which was traditionallyascribed to Zeng-zi, the disciple of Confucius who emphasizedthis virtue. However, scholars believe it was compiled from Confucianteachings in the same period when the Li Ji was being formed.The Xiao Jing consists of conversations between Confuciushimself and Zeng-zi. In this text filial piety (xiao) isheralded as the basis of virtue and the source of culture. Confuciusexplains that since all of our bodies are given to us by our parents,filial piety should make sure that no harm comes to our parents.This loyalty begins with the parents but moves on to service ofthe sovereign and is completed by the establishment of one's ownpersonality. From our parents we learn how to love, and one wholoves one's parents does not dare to hate others. Love and reverencein service to one's parents gives one a moral influence that transformspeople and becomes a model for all.The filial feudal lord is not proud and arrogant but frugaland prudent in order to keep his wealth and dignity. Filial officersdo not presume to use words or act contrary to the early kings.Filial scholars have equal love for their mothers and fathersand their prince; they show love to their mothers, reverence totheir prince, and both to their fathers. The common people arefilial by supporting their parents through using the soil of theearth and being prudent and frugal in their expenditures. Governmentby filial piety means not neglecting the ministers of small statesnor ignoring widows nor mistreating servants and concubines, muchless the aristocrats, scholars, people, wives, and children.No bond is greater than the life parents give one. No kindnessis greater than their care for the children in their upbringing.Thus filial piety loves one's parents before all by revering them,making them happy, taking care of them in sickness, showing sorrowover their death, and sacrificing to them solemnly. Whoever reallyloves one's parents will not be proud in a high position nor rebelliousin an inferior position nor contentious with the people. Anotherduty is for the son to admonish the parents even if it means disobedience.In case of gross wrong, the son should admonish the father justas the minister should admonish his sovereign and a friend admonisha scholar. If ministers admonish the ruler, a state will not belost even if the ruler is not virtuous.Three books of rituals served as the Li Jing (Ritual Classic).The oldest is the I Li, which was discussed in the lastchapter. The Zhou Rituals (Zhou Li) is ascribed to thefamous Duke of Zhou; but scholars believe it was a work of thefifth or fourth centuries BC, although some believe it was entirelyforged by Han scholars. The six parts of the Zhou Li describewhat came to be the six departments of Chinese government forthe next two thousand years. The Institute of Heaven is the primeministry that supervises all governmental activities and controlsand appoints all the officials. The Institute of Earth coverseducation and social welfare, especially agriculture and marriage.The Institute of Spring is concerned with ceremonies and protocol,including divination and astrology. The Institute of Summer managesdefense and security, training the troops. The Institute of Autumnis the department of justice and punishment, administering thelaws. The last section of the book on the Institute of Winterwas lost but was replaced by the "Record of the Inspectionof Works" on the department of public works and economicproduction.The collection of texts known as the Li Ji was composedby followers of Confucius and became an important compendium ofConfucian teachings by the first century BC when it was compiledby Dai De and his nephew Dai Sheng. The rules of propriety arediscussed in detail for funeral rites and mourning, sacrifices,archery and chariot-driving contests, capping ceremonies for theinitiation into adulthood, marriage ceremonies, audiences, drinkingand banquet festivities, and friendly missions. The Li Jibegins with the following summary of the rules of propriety: Always and in everything let there be reverence; with the deportment grave as when one is thinking, and with speech composed and definite. This will make the people tranquil. Pride should not be allowed to grow; the desires should not be indulged; the will should not be gratified to the full; pleasure should not be carried to excess. Men of talents and virtue can be familiar with others and yet respect them; can stand in awe of others and yet love them. They love others and yet acknowledge the evil that is in them. They accumulate and yet are able to part with it; they rest in what gives them satisfaction and yet can seek satisfaction elsewhere. When you find wealth within your reach, do not get it by improper means; when you meet with calamity, do not escape from it by improper means. Do not seek for victory in small contentions; do not seek for more than your proper share. Do not positively affirm what you have doubts about; and do not let what you say appear as your own view.19What is right for the time and circumstances should be followed.In a mission to another state, its customs are to be observed.One should not try to please others in an improper way nor belavish with one's words. Good conduct is when one cultivates one'sown person and fulfills one's words in accordance with the rightcourse. Virtue, goodness, and justice cannot be fully carriedout without the rules of propriety, nor can training and lessonsbe complete, quarrels cleared up, duties between ruler and minister,high and low, father and son, elder brother and younger be determined,nor can majesty and dignity be shown at court nor official dutiescarried out nor offerings to spiritual beings be presented withoutthe rules of propriety. Respect and reverence make humans differentfrom beasts. The rules of propriety value reciprocity. Proprietyis seen in humbling oneself and honoring others.In the chapter on the evolution of propriety Confucius recallsthe Grand Unity when a public and common spirit ruled everywhere.Those with talents, virtue and ability were chosen. Words weresincere, and harmony was cultivated. People did not only lovetheir parents or sons but everyone's. The aged were provided withsecurity until death, the able-bodied with employment, and theyoung with the means of growing up. Kindness and compassion wereshown to widows, orphans, and the disabled. Men had proper work,and women had their homes. Selfish schemings found no development,and stealing did not show itself.When this Grand Union fell into disuse, the kingdom becamehereditary, and now everyone loves their own parents and cherishestheir own children, working for their own advantage. The rulesof propriety were used by great men of power and position to driveaway rulers who did not follow them, having recourse to arms.In this less spontaneously good age, ancient kings used the rulesof propriety to represent the ways of heaven and regulate humanfeelings.The seven feelings are joy, anger, sadness, fear, love, disliking,and liking. The ten virtues that are right are kindness of thefather and filial duty of the son, gentleness of the older brotherand obedience of the younger, justice of the husband and submissionof the wife, kindness of elders and deference of juniors, andbenevolence of the ruler and loyalty of the minister. Truthfulnessin speech and cultivation of harmony are called advantageous,while quarrels, plundering, and murder are disastrous.The excellence of two short texts in the Li Ji was sorecognized by Neo-Confucian scholars of the twelfth century CEthat they made them two of the four Confucian classics (alongwith the Analects and Mencius), and for six centuriesthey were the basis of civil service examinations. These two textsare the Da Xue, which has beentranslated as "The Great Learning" and which I call"Higher Education" becauseit means learning for adults, and the ZhongYong, which has been translated as "The Doctrineof the Mean" and "Central Harmony" and which Icall "The Center of Harmony."The first part of the Da Xueis attributed to Confucius, and scholars divide on the authorshipof the commentary and editing between the disciple Zeng-zi andthe grandson of Confucius, Zisi, who is also generally consideredthe author of the Zhong Yong.The Da Xue begins with thethree aims of the way of learning as manifesting clear character,loving the people, and living in the highest good. These enableone to achieve directing purpose, calm clarity, peaceful poise,careful deliberation, and success. The eight steps begin withthe investigation of things and proceed to extending knowledge,a sincere will, setting the heart right, cultivating the personallife, making families harmonious, government orderly, and resultin peace in the world. Cultivating the personal life is consideredthe root. Such is the essential text attributed to the great Confucius.In the commentary Confucius is quoted as saying that he couldhandle litigations as well as anyone, but what is needed is forpeople not to have litigations at all. Making the will sinceremeans not allowing any self-deception. Thus the best people alwayswatch over themselves when they are alone. Zeng-zi said that wealthmay make a house shine, but virtue makes a person shine. Sayingthat cultivation of the personal life depends on rectifying themind means that when one is affected by anger, fear, fondness,worries and anxiety, the mind will not be correct. One must cultivatethe personal life in order to regulate the family or else onewill be partial toward those they love, dislike, fear, revere,pity, and respect. Few in the world know what is bad in thosethey like and what is good in those they dislike.The family must be regulated before the state can be governed,because no one who cannot teach his own family can teach others.When families become good and compliant, then the whole statewill become so. Yet when one man becomes greedy, the whole countrywill be disordered. A gentleman must have good qualities in himselfbefore he can require them in others. No one who does not havealtruism oneself can teach other people. When the ruler treatsthe elders with respect and the young with compassion, then thepeople will be aroused to filial piety and find peace in the world.Virtue is the root that produces the fruit of wealth. Yet whenwealth is gathered in the ruler's hand, the people will scatteraway from him; but when wealth is scattered, they will gatheraround him. Evil words uttered will be uttered back to one. Whenwealth is acquired in an evil way, it will be taken away in anevil way. But when the ruler loves humanity, the people will lovejustice and carry the affairs of the state to completion."The Center of Harmony"(Zhong Yong), which is influencedby mystical Daoism, begins by defining human nature as what isgiven by heaven, which when followed is called the way. Cultivatingthe way is education. The best people look into their hearts andwatch the unseen and apprehend the unheard. Before the feelingsof pleasure, anger, sorrow, and joy are aroused, one is in whatis called the center. When these feelings are aroused and attaintheir due measure and degree, it is called harmony. The centeris the supreme foundation of the universe, and harmony is itsuniversal expression. When the center and harmony are fully realized,order and happiness abound in heaven and earth, and everythingflourishes.Confucius said that the best people always maintain the center,but others do not watch the center in their hearts. The smartgo beyond it; the stupid do not come up to it. Confucius regrettedthat the way was not being pursued. The legendary emperor Shunavoided the extremes and found the center. Confucius also sawthe good embraced by his student Hui. Even when states are putin order, honors and rewards are declined, and naked weapons aretrampled on, the center of harmony is still not being followed.Only the wise who are in accord with the center of harmony retirefrom the world and are unknown to their age with no regret. Yeteven the wise do not know the way nor practice it completely.The way finds its simple beginnings in the relationship betweena man and a woman, but in its ultimate extent it illuminates heavenand earth.For Confucius the way is not far from people; what is removedfrom people cannot be considered the way. The best govern peopleaccording to human nature. Conscientiousness and reciprocity meannot doing to others what you do not wish them to do to you. Thebest do what is proper to their position and do not go beyondthis. The way is like a long journey that must begin with whatis near. In a religious moment Confucius praises the power ofinvisible spiritual beings. Next Confucius praises the foundersof the Zhou Dynasty for their virtue.The way is cultivated by human goodness, and its greatest expressionis in loving relations. Justice is the principle of setting thingsright, and its greatest expression is honoring the worthy. Thesetwo give rise to the rules of propriety. To cultivate their personallives rulers must serve their parents and know people, and thenthey will know heaven. The three universal virtues are wisdom,love, and courage, and the way by which they are practiced isone. These three virtues come from love of learning, practicingvigorously, and a sense of shame. The nine rules for governingthe world, states, and families are cultivating the personal life,honoring the worthy, loving the relatives, respecting the greatministers, identifying oneself with the welfare of all the officers,treating the common people as one's own children, promoting allthe useful arts and crafts, being kind to strangers from far countries,and taking interest in the princes of the world.Understanding what is good leads to sincerity, which is theway of heaven. Thinking how to be sincere is the human way andis choosing the good and holding to it. Sincerity may be studiedextensively by inquiring into it accurately, thinking it overcarefully, discerning it clearly, and practicing it thoroughly.Do not give up even if it takes a thousand efforts. Enlightenmentresults from sincerity. Those who are absolutely sincere developfully their own nature, the nature of others and things, and byforming a trinity with heaven and earth are able to assist inthe transforming and nourishing process. This is done by the expressionand manifestation of sincerity so that it is full of light, movesothers, changes and transforms them. Absolute sincerity can evenforeknow and understand omens. Sincerity completes the self ingoodness and things in wisdom, uniting the internal and external.Absolute sincerity is ceaseless, eternal, manifest, infinite,extensive and deep, transcendental and brilliant.By this bridge the Confucians get to the Daoist way of accomplishingwithout acting. Yet for the Confucians the process begins withstudy and learning and results in respecting the rules of propriety.Confucius is credited with transmitting the ancient doctrinesof Yao and Shun harmonized with the adaptations of Wen and Wu.The Confucians look to the perfectly wise, who can rule all peoplewith quick apprehension, intelligence, insight, and wisdom; embraceall people with greatness, generosity, kindness, and a tenderheart; maintain everything with energy, strength, steadiness,and resolution; command reverence with balance, seriousness, centeredness,and correctness; and exercise discrimination with order, refinement,concentration, and penetration.The best people of this Confucian ideal expressed in the Zhong Yong examine their heartsso that nothing is wrong there and so can observe what othersdo not see, be reverent without moving, truthful without speaking,encourage good without rewarding, awe people without showing angerin perfect virtue. Thus we find here a synthesis of Confucianand Daoist philosophy.The philosopher-scholar who helped to bring about the triumphof Confucianism in the Han dynasty, Dong Zhongshu, lived in thesecond century BC. Dong Zhongshu wanted to unify the empire culturallyby teaching the Confucian classics. In 136 BC he urged EmperorWu to open an imperial university for the study of the five traditionalclassics (Documents, Odes,Changes, Ritesand the Spring and Autumn Annals).His own book, Luxuriant Gems of the Spring and Autumn Annals,integrates the currently popular yin-yang cosmology with Confucianphilosophy. Dong Zhongshu treated the universe as an organic wholein which heaven, earth, and humans all influence each other. Hewould subject the people to the ruler and the ruler to heaven.Dong Zhongshu believed that heaven's will could be discerned bycorrelating catastrophes and anomalies with warnings in one'sheart. This philosophy led to a more superstitious attitude towardsuch things as eclipses and weather patterns.Dong Zhongshu believed that humans are the only creatures capableof practicing goodness and justice, but they can also be greedy.For Dong one must rectify oneself to be just, and love othersto be good. Love needs the discrimination of wisdom, and wisdomneeds love to be translated into action. Dong Zhongshu taughtthat the good person loves people, harmonizes likes and dislikesin human relations, does not harbor hatred or a desire to hurt,does not conceal or evade, is not jealous, does not let desireslead to sadness or worry, and does not do anything treacherous,cunning, or depraved. Confucius and his followers, in my opinion, offered a marvelousethical philosophy in warring and chaotic times that mostly ignoredtheir advice. Although sexist and patriarchal as their times,the universal ethical values and methods of attaining them arewell thought out and available to everyone. The detailed regulationsof the rules of propriety could become rigid and tyrannical tofree expression if they are slavishly followed, and the emphasison the traditions of past heroes and excessive respect for elderscould also lead to a rigid social culture dominated by traditionand the older generation. Yet this tendency was already in Chineseculture before Confucius, whose ethical principles at least providedan opportunity to moderate such dominance. The Confucian influencein Chinese culture was to be immense, but how it was practicedin the coming centuries still needs to be examined. Daoism and Mo-zi Notes 1. Analects tr. Arthur Waley, 7:22.2. Ibid. 17:5.3. Ibid. 4:18.4. Ibid. 4:8.5. Ibid. 7:3.6. Ibid. 5:11.7. Ibid. 14:21.8. Ibid. 7:10.9. Ibid. 7:6.10. Li Chi 26: "Ching Chieh" in Wisdom ofConfucius by Lin Yutang, p. 191-192.11. Analects tr. Arthur Waley, 12:19.12. Ibid. 2:15.13. Mencius tr. D. C. Lau, 1B:11, p. 70.14. Ibid. 6A:6, p. 163.15. Basic Writings of Hsun Tzu tr. Burton Watson, p. 7416. Hsun-tzu 26:8 in Xunzi tr. John Knoblock, Vol.3, p. 204.17. Basic Writings of Hsun Tzu tr. Burton Watson, p. 87-88.18. Ibid., p. 100.19. Li Chi (Book of Rites) 1:1 tr. James Legge, p. 61-62.Copyright © 1998-2005 by Sanderson BeckThis chapter is part of the book China, Korea & Japan to 1800, which has now been published.For informationon ordering click here.ContentsShang, Zhou and the ClassicsConfucius, Mencius and Xun-ziDaoism and Mo-ziLegalism, Qin Empire and HanDynastyChina 7 BC to 1279Mongols and Yuan ChinaMing Empire 1368-1644Qing Empire 1644-1799Korea to 1800 Japan to 1615Japan 1615-1800 Summary and EvaluationBibliography Qing Decline 1799-1875 Qing Dynasty Fall 1875-1912 Republican China in Turmoil 1912-1926 Nationalist-Communist Civil War 1927-1937 China at War 1937-1949 Korea 1800-1949 Japan's Modernization 1800-1894 Imperial Japan 1894-1937 Japan's War and Defeat 1937-1949 Chronological IndexCONFUCIUS AND SOCRATES: Teaching of WisdomContentsIntroductionLife of ConfuciusAttitudes of ConfuciusHow Confucius TaughtWhat Confucius TaughtDid Confucius PracticeIt?Influence of ConfuciusBECK index |
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