Ethics of Buddha and Buddhism by Sanderson BeckBECK indexBuddha and Buddhism Siddartha GautamaBuddhaDoctrine (Dharma)DhammapadaQuestions of King MilindaCommunity (Sangha) This chapter has been published in the book INDIA & Southeast Asia to 1800. For ordering information, please click here. The oldest known date in the history of India is the deathof the one called Buddha in 483 BC, and even that date is somewhatcontroversial. Buddha means "one who is intuitive, awakened,or enlightened." The famous historical person known as Buddhawas also called the Tathagata, which means "the one who hascome thus," and Shakyamuni, which means "the sage ofthe Shakya tribe." He is said to have lived eighty years,and thus was probably born in 563 BC. Siddartha GautamaHis father Suddhodana of the Gautama clan was elected kingof the Shakya tribe by its five hundred families just south ofthe Himalaya mountains in the realm of influence of the powerfulKosala monarchy. The son was born in the Lumbini garden and namedSiddartha, which means "he who has accomplished his aim."Many myths and legends surround the birth of Siddartha, but mostof these seem to have been developed centuries later in the Jatakas.A famous seer named Asita predicted that the child would eitherbecome a great king or, if he left home, a great teacher. Hismother Maya died seven days after giving birth, and her youngersister Mahapajapati, who was also married to Suddhodana, becamehis foster mother.By all accounts Siddartha was raised amid the finest luxuriesof the time. Later he said that three palaces had been built forhim - one for hot weather, one for cold, and one for the rainyseason. His clothes were of the finest silk. When he walked onthe grounds, someone held a white umbrella over his head. Eventhe servants were well fed, and music was played only by beautifulwomen.Having demonstrated his skill in archery, Siddartha chose Yasodharato be his wife, and they were married when he was about sixteenyears old. For the next thirteen years he continued to live inluxury with his wife and concubines. Then about the time of thebirth of his son Rahula, the famous four signs occurred. Accordingto legend, his father had tried to prevent his princely son fromexperiencing any suffering or sorrow or religious contact so thathe would become a king rather than a spiritual teacher.However, one day while traveling outside the palace gates,Siddartha happened to come across an old man for the first timein his life. He was appalled at the wrinkles and decrepitude.On another occasion he happened to observe a sick person and learnedabout the loathsome nature of disease. The third sign came whenhe witnessed a funeral procession and was able to see the lifelesscorpse that was being carried. The suddenness of these three experiencesset him thinking about the transitoriness of human life. Finallyhe came upon a religious ascetic, who had renounced the worldto seek enlightenment, a common occupation for Kshatriyas likehimself as well as for Brahmins.With the birth of his son he had fulfilled his obligation tocontinue his family line and decided that he too must renouncehis kingdom and seek a way out of the human miseries of old age,sickness, and death. So he took off his silk garments and puton the coarse clothes of an ascetic and went south to Magadhaseeking enlightenment.While begging for his food in Rajagriha, the capital city ofMagadha, his princely demeanor was observed by King Bimbisara(Shrenika). The king went to see Siddartha to find out who hewas and what he was doing. Siddartha told him that he was purifyinghimself in order to achieve nirvana, and he promised to teachthe king after he attained enlightenment.Like the sages of the Upanishads,Siddartha practiced yoga and meditation. At Vaishali to learnmeditative concentration he studied with Alara Kalama, who wassaid to have had hundreds of disciples. Siddartha soon learnedhow to reach the formless world, but still having mental anxietieshe decided not to become a disciple of Alara Kalama. Nor did hebecome a disciple of his second teacher, Uddaka Ramaputra, afterhe attained the higher state of consciousness beyond thought andnon-thought.Still not satisfied, Siddartha decided to practice the pathof extreme austerities, and in this quest he was joined by thesage Kaundinya and four others. He pressed his tongue againsthis palate to try to restrain his mind until the perspirationpoured from his armpits. He restrained his breath and heard theviolent sounds of wind in his ears and head. He went into trances,and some thought he was dead. He fasted for long periods of timeand then decided to try limiting his food to the juice of beansand peas. As his flesh shrank, the bones almost stuck out of hisskin so that he could touch his spine from the front; after sittingon the ground his imprint looked like a camel's footprint.For six years Siddartha practiced such austerities, but insteadof achieving superhuman knowledge and wisdom he only seemed toget weaker and weaker. Finally he thought that there might bea better way to attain enlightenment. He remembered how, whilehis father was working, he would sit in the shade of an appletree free of sensual desires. Perhaps in concentrating his mindwithout evil ideas and sensual desires he should not be afraidof a happy state of mind. However, to gain the strength he felthe needed for this concentration he decided to start eating again.When he gave up practicing the extreme austerities, the five mendicantswho were with him became disillusioned and left him, saying thatGautama lives in abundance and has given up striving.Siddartha reasoned that a life of penance and pain was no betterthan a life of luxury and pleasure, because if penance on Earthis religion, then the heavenly reward for penance must be irreligion.If merit comes from purity of food, then deer should have themost merit. Those who practice asceticism without calming theirpassions are like a man trying to kindle fire by rubbing a stickon green wood in water, but those who have no desires or worldlyattachments are like a man using a dry stick that ignites.Regaining his strength from normal eating of the food he begged,Siddartha once again practiced meditation. Now he easily attainedthe first stage of joy and pleasure, then a joyful trance arisingfrom concentration with serenity and the mind fixed on one pointwithout reasoning and investigation. The third stage producedequanimity to joy and aversion in a mindful, happy state. In thefourth stage pleasure and pain were left behind in a mindful purity.With his mind thus concentrated and cleansed he directed it tothe remembrance of former existences from previous births, alsoperceiving cycles of evolution and dissolution of the universe.Then he directed his mind to the passing away and rebirth ofbeings, perceiving how the karma of evil actions, words, and thoughtsleads to rebirth in miserable conditions and suffering in hell;but those beings leading good lives are reborn in a happy statein a heavenly world. Finally directing his mind to the means ofultimate release Siddartha realized that there is pain, a causeof pain, the cessation of pain, and a way that leads to that cessationof pain. Thus his mind was emancipated from sensual desires, thedesire for existence, and ignorance.According to legend this whole process occurred in one nightafter he had decided to sit under a tree until he became enlightenedor died. It was also said that he was tested by Mara, the tempter,but Siddartha could not be swayed from his purpose. Thus darknessand ignorance were dispelled by the light as Siddartha Gautamabecame enlightened and was henceforth known as the Buddha. BuddhaHaving gained this doctrine, the Buddha thought how difficultit would be for humanity to understood because of their attachmentsand lust. Trying to teach it to them would be vexation for him.However, the god Brahma asked him to teach the doctrine, becausesome people, who were not too impure, were falling away from nothearing the teachings. Then the Buddha in pity for beings surveyedtheir conditions and saw some of little impurity whom he couldteach. At first he thought of his former teachers Alara Kalamaand Uddaka, but in his clairvoyant awareness he realized thatboth of them had just died in the last few days. Then he decidedto teach the five mendicants who had been with him in their striving.Perceiving that they were in the deer park at Benares, he decidedto go there.Along the way he met an Ajivika ascetic named Upaka, who whentold of the Buddha's enlightenment, merely said that he hopedthat it was so and went his way. When the five mendicants sawSiddartha Gautama, they thought they would not rise in respectbut would offer him a seat. However, as the Buddha arrived, theyspontaneously greeted him as a friend. They still criticized himfor living in abundance, but the Buddha explained that he doesnot live in abundance. He spoke to them as one enlightened, andthey had to agree that he never had spoken to them in that mannerbefore. While he admonished two of them, the other three wentoff to collect alms; then he spoke with those three while theother two went for alms. In this way all five soon attained insightand the supreme peace.In this deer park at Benares the Buddha gave his first sermonin which he explained that the two extremes are not to be practicedby the one who is enlightened - what is joined with the passionsand luxury which is low, vulgar, common, ignoble, and useless,nor what is joined with self-torture which is painful, ignoble,and useless too. Avoiding these two extremes the enlightened followthe middle path which produces insight and knowledge and leadsto peace, wisdom, enlightenment, and nirvana. Buddha then expoundedthe four noble (aryan) truths of his doctrine. Now this, monks, is the noble truth of pain: birth is painful; old age is painful; sickness is painful; death is painful; sorrow, lamentation, dejection, and despair are painful. Contact with unpleasant things is painful; not getting what one wishes is painful. In short the five groups of grasping are painful. Now this, monks, is the noble truth of the cause of pain: the craving, which leads to rebirth, combined with pleasure and lust, finding pleasure here and there, namely the craving for passion, the craving for existence, and the craving for non-existence. Now this, monks, is the noble truth of the cessation of pain: the cessation without a remainder of craving, the abandonment, forsaking, release, and non-attachment. Now this, monks, is the noble truth of the way that leads to the cessation of pain: this is the noble eightfold way, namely, correct understanding, correct intention, correct speech, correct action, correct livelihood, correct attention, correct concentration, and correct meditation.1The Buddha declared that Kaundinya had understood the doctrine,and he welcomed him as the first monk in the community by saying,"Come, monk, well proclaimed is the doctrine; lead a religiouslife for making a complete end of pain."2 After further instructionthe other four mendicants were also admitted into the community(sangha). Then the Buddha preached to the five that thebody, perceptions, feelings, the mind, and even discriminatingconsciousness are not the self or soul. By turning away from thebody, perceptions, feelings, mind, and discriminating consciousness,one becomes free from craving and emancipated. Life then becomesreligious and is no longer under finite conditions.Yasa, the son of a wealthy guildmaster, lived in luxury atBenares, and like Siddhartha he became disgusted with his palaceattendants. After hearing the Buddha's doctrine he left home andbecame the first lay disciple in the new community. The firstwomen to become lay disciples were Yasa's mother and former wife.They were soon followed by four friends of Yasa and then fiftymore. The Buddha then suggested that the sixty disciples wanderaround separately to preach the doctrine so that others may beliberated from the fetters of illusion, while he went to Uruvelain Magadha.There thirty men of royal blood had entered the forest withtheir 29 wives and a courtesan for the one who was not married.When the courtesan ran off with their gold, silver, and gems,they all went to search for her and found the Buddha. He askedthem if it was more important to seek for that woman or for themselves.When they agreed that their selves were more important, they satdown so that the Buddha could teach them how to seek within themselves.Shakyamuni was sitting under a banyan tree when a Brahmin namedDrona approached him in awe, asking if he was a god. The Tathagatasaid no. The Brahmin asked if he were a kind of nature spirit(gandharva or yaksha), but again the Buddha deniedit. When he asked if he were a human, he denied that too. FinallyDrona asked him if he was neither divine nor non-human nor human,then what was he? The reply was that he is Buddha (awake).Shubha, a Brahmin student, asked the Buddha why humans differedso much in birth, intelligence, health, and so on. Shakyamuniexplained that beings are heirs of karma, the consequences oftheir actions. Evildoers may experience happiness until theirdeeds ripen, and the good may experience bad things until theirgood deeds ripen. The pure and the impure create their own destinies;no one can purify another.Also living in this region were three Brahmin brothers of theKashyapa family. They were ascetics with matted hair over theage of seventy and were the most respected religious leaders inMagadha with a total of about one thousand disciples. The Buddhaspoke with the oldest, Uruvilva Kashyapa, but it was difficultfor him to accept that such a young man could be so holy. Finallythe Buddha used his mystic powers, and convinced of the Buddha'ssuperiority Uruvilva decided to follow him. The Buddha suggestedthat they ask his five hundred followers what they wanted to do,and they all decided to join as well, shaving their hair and beardsand throwing their ceremonial utensils into the river. The twoKashyapa brothers saw the implements in the river and eventuallyjoined as well with their disciples.On the way to Rajagriha the Buddha and the thousand disciplessaw the volcanic mountain Gayashirsa with its glowing fire. TheBuddha preached his sermon on fire - how the sensations, perceptions,thoughts, and actions are burning with the poisons of covetousness,anger, and ignorance. At the capital he preached to King Bimbisaraabout the triple doctrine of charity, precepts, and good works.The king declared that all five of his wishes had been fulfilled- that he might be king, that a Buddha would come to his kingdom,that he would meet him, be instructed by him, and understand theteachings. After the sermon King Bimbisara donated a bamboo grovenear the capital as a site for a monastery.Also at Rajagriha lived the agnostic Sanjaya, who also hadmany disciples under two named Shariputra and Maudgalyayana, whowere seeking enlightenment and a better teacher. Shariputra observedAssaji (one of the first five mendicants in the community) beggingand learned of the Buddha's teachings. He told Maudgalyayana,and they told the two hundred fifty disciples of Sanjaya. Eventhough Sanjaya tried three times to stop them from going away,they all went to find the Buddha, who greeted them with the revelationthat these two would become his greatest disciples. Within twoweeks of joining the community both Shariputra and Maudgalyayanahad become enlightened.In meditating Maudgalyayana had trouble with drowsiness andfalling asleep. The Buddha suggested several remedies includinglaying down for a while to sleep before resuming meditation. Theuncle of Shariputra was a skeptic like Sanjaya and told the Buddhathat he could not accept any conclusive doctrine. Shakyamuni simplyasked him if he recognized his own doctrine as conclusive. Caughtin self-contradiction, he realized the weakness and limitationof skeptical philosophy. Then the Buddha explained the law ofcausation in human life.Having heard that his son had become a Buddha, King Suddhodanasent Udayin to invite Shakyamuni to the capital at Kapilavastu.Udayin was converted to the new religion, and Shakyamuni returnedto his home town. His father criticized him for begging for foodwhen he was rich enough to feed thousands of followers. Shakyamunireplied that mendicancy was the correct custom for his line, bywhich he meant the line of Buddhas. Verbal discussions were notenough to win over people who had known him as a boy; so the Buddhaused his mystical powers to convince them.Siddartha's half-brother Nanda was about to be declared crownprince and married to Sundari, the most beautiful woman in thekingdom, but he decided to join the community instead. However,he could not help thinking about Sundari; so the Buddha gave hima vision of hundreds of heavenly maidens, though this was latercriticized by others as a wrong motivation for seeking enlightenment.Eventually Nanda repented of this motivation and asked the Buddhato dissolve his promise of these maidens, and Nanda attained enlightenmentand became an arhat (a term meaning "worthy"or "honorable" used for disciples who attained the highestlevel of awareness).Siddartha's son Rahula was also admitted to the community atthe age of ten, but later a rule was made that minors under twentycould not join the community without permission from their parents.Many Shakya nobles also joined the community at this time (accordingto legend 80,000) including Ananda, Anuruddha, Devadatta, Bhaddiya,and Kimbila. On the way to Buddha they were accompanied by theirbarber and slave, Upali. They sent him back to Kapilavastu withtheir jewels, but afraid of the Shakyas' reaction, he put themon a tree and rejoined the five aristocrats. Upali, who was ofthe lowest caste, was ordained first giving him seniority overthe nobles he had served so that their Shakya pride might be moderated.Like Mahavira, the Buddha taught in the ordinary language of thepeople rather than in the aristocratic Sanskrit.Complaints that monks wandering around during the rainy seasontrampled the grass and destroyed living creatures led the Buddhato adopt the custom of staying in retreat during the three monthsof rain. After one of these retreats, a wealthy householder fromShravasti, who became known as Anathapindada ("Giver of almsto the unprotected"), confessed to the Buddha that he enjoyedhis investing and business cares. Shakyamuni suggested that hebe a lay disciple and continue his work and use it as a blessingfor other people. So Anathapindada invited the Buddha to spendthe next rainy season at Shravasti, the chief city in Kosala,where he purchased and built the Jetavana Monastery. Later whenAnathapindada was dying of a painful illness, Shariputra wentand taught him the mental concentration for the avoidance of painusually only taught to monks; Anathapindada died in peace.The Buddha liked the Jetavana Monastery to be quiet, for heonce dismissed Yashoja and five hundred monks for talking tooloudly after they arrived. However, they went to another placenear Vaishali and made great spiritual gains. Later when the Buddhatraveled to Vaishali, he noticed that the area was illuminated.He told Ananda to invite Yashoja and the five hundred monks tothe hall with the peaked roof. When they arrived, the Buddha wassitting in silent meditation; they too joined him in silent concentration.Every few hours Ananda approached the Buddha to ask him to greetthese monks, but Shakyamuni remained silent and in the morningtold Ananda that if he understood meditation better, he wouldnot have kept asking him to greet the monks, who were likewisesitting in immovable concentration.A new monk once confessed to the Buddha for having eaten meatin his almsbowl, but the Buddha forgave those who ate meat thatwas not prepared for them. Their ethical principle was not toharm any living creature. Yet he criticized those who hunt andkill animals for sport and warned his followers not to acceptany food from such blood-stained hands.After Shakyamuni's father died as a lay disciple, he declaredthat a lay disciple, whose mind is free from the poisons of lust,attachment, false views, and ignorance, is no different than anyoneelse who is free. Fearing a famine, the Shakya warrior chiefsagitated for a war with the Kolyas over water rights to the RohiniRiver. The Kolyas had built a dike to conserve water; when theyrefused the Shakyas' demand to dismantle it, both sides preparedfor war. Just before the battle was to begin, the Buddha spoketo both sides, asking them to compare the value of earth and waterto the intrinsic value of people and the human blood they wereabout to spill. He told a parable about a decrepit demon, whofed on anger and took over a royal throne, becoming stronger asmore anger was directed at him until the true king came and calmlyoffered to serve the throne, which led to the diminishment anddisappearance of the anger demon. In this way the war was avoided.Krisha Gautami was stricken with grief when her only son died.Unable to find a physician who could bring him back to life, someonesuggested that she go to the Buddha. He told her to get a handfulof mustard seed in the city, but it must be from a house whereno one has ever lost a child, spouse, parent, or friend. Eventuallyshe came to realize how common death was and put aside her selfishattachment to her child.Prajapati, the aunt and foster mother of Shakyamuni, askedto be admitted to the community. With Ananda acting as intermediary,the Buddha established eight conditions for the admittance ofnuns into the community. Nuns had to make obeisance to all themonks, even the newest, and nuns were not allowed to criticizea monk even though monks criticized nuns. Although they were nottreated equally, at least women were allowed to join the community.The sexism was also apparent when the Buddha told Ananda thatthe religious life would only last five hundred years insteadof a thousand because women had been admitted.A legend tells how a disciple used magical power to get a sandalwoodbowl that had been tied from the top of a bamboo pole as a kindof contest. When the Buddha heard of it, he forbade those in thecommunity to use such magical powers and had the bowl broken upand used as perfume. He suggested that his disciples only gainadherents by the miracle of instruction.In the ninth year after the enlightenment the Buddha was atKaushambi, and the monk Malunkyaputra complained that the Buddhanever explained whether the world is eternal or temporary, finiteor infinite, or whether life and the body are the same or different,or whether arhats are beyond death or not. He even threatenedto leave the community if the Buddha would not answer his questions.First the Buddha asked him if he had ever promised to explainthese things; he had not.Then he told the parable of a man who was pierced by a poisonedarrow, and his relatives summoned a doctor. Suppose, he said,the physician had said that he would not remove the arrow nortreat the patient until his questions had been answered, suchas who made the bow, what kind it was, all about the arrow, andso on. The man would die, and still the information would notbe known. Then the Buddha told Malunkyaputra that a person wouldcome to the end of one's life before those metaphysical questionshe had asked could be answered by the Tathagata. Those questionsdo not tend toward edification nor lead to supreme wisdom. However,the Buddha's teaching regarding suffering, its cause, and themeans of ending it is like removing the poisoned arrow.A conflict arose in the community when a monk who refused toadmit he had committed an offense was expelled. Some complainedthat this violated their principle that only evil deeds committedwith conscious intent are morally reprehensible. However, theBuddha declared that the two greatest ways to obtain demerit arenot to ask forgiveness after committing a wrong and not to forgiveone who has confessed and asked for forgiveness.A Kalama nobleman from north of Kaushambi admitted that hehad doubts because various teachers expressed contradictory views.The Buddha responded that he was wise not to believe everythingbut to question with reason and by experience. After thoroughinvestigation whether the teachings are good, free from faults,praised by the noble, and when practiced lead to the welfare andhappiness of oneself and other beings as well, then they may beaccepted and lived.At Asyapura they found Brahmin priests sacrificing horses,sheep, goats, cows, and other animals on bloody altars decoratedwith images of gods. The Buddha told his followers not to be deceivedbut to purify their hearts and cease to kill. They should notrefuse to admit they are ascetics, who enjoy robes, bowl, bed,and medicine. In their simplified lives they learn how to calmtheir bodies and concentrate their minds to awaken the four religiousqualities of loving friendship, compassion, altruistic joy, andequanimity. The Buddha also declared that in regard to this asceticlife all the castes are equal.A monk named Sona in the Sitavana Monastery at Rajagriha wasso zealous in walking that his feet left a bloody trail. The Buddhaasked him if his lute could be played well if the strings weretoo tight or too loose. Just so, excessive zeal may make the mindweary and one's thoughts irritable and uncertain. He suggestedto Sona that gradual progress led to self-mastery and happinessrather than anxiety.A young Brahmin named Vakula was so infatuated with the Buddhathat he continually kept him in his sight. The Buddha explainedthat the one who sees the dharma (doctrine) sees the Buddha,but Vakula still always remained in his presence. Finally at theend of the rainy season the Buddha asked him to go away. Realizingthat Vakula was climbing Vulture Peak to commit suicide, Shakyamuniwent after him and called him back lest he destroy the conditionsfor winning great fruit.An ambitious disciple named Purna decided to spread the doctrineto the Shronaparantakas. The Buddha, knowing that they were adangerous people, asked him what he would do if they insultedand abused him. Purna said he would consider them good and kindfor not hitting him and throwing rocks at him. But what if theyhit and throw rocks? Then he would be glad they did not use clubsand swords. If they used clubs and swords, he would be glad theydid not kill him; even if they kill him, they will have deliveredhim from his vile body. So equipped with patience and love Purnawent to the Shronaparantakas and was about to be killed by a huntingarcher for fun, when the hunter was so struck by how willing thisperson was to die that he stopped and eventually accepted thethree refuges of the Buddha, the doctrine, and the community.Another monastery at Purvarama near Rajagriha was donated byVishakha, the daughter of a rich man. Once at this monastery theBuddha remained silent on the moon day when the preaching serviceand confessions by the monks took place. Finally the Buddha saidto Ananda that the assembly was not wholly pure. Maudgalyayana,perceiving who the immoral person was, asked him to leave; whenhe refused to leave three times, he was escorted out of the hallby the arm. The Tathagata thought it strange that he should waituntil he was thrown out. Then the Buddha declared that he wouldno longer attend these sessions, but the monks would recite theregulations themselves.When Shakyamuni was about 55, his personal attendant at thetime, Nagasamala, insisted on taking a different road than theBuddha advised and was beaten by robbers. At the Shravasti Monasterythe Buddha announced that he wanted to have a permanent attendant.Shariputra volunteered, but the Buddha said his work was teaching.Maudgalyayana and others were also rejected. Ananda remained silent,but Shakyamuni asked him if he would find it a bother. Anandasaid that it would not be bothersome, but he did not considerhimself worthy. Then he offered to do it on the following eightconditions: that he not have to accept gifts or alms given tothe Buddha nor dwell in his chamber nor accept invitations offeredonly to him and that he may accompany the Perfect One when themonks are invited, that he may present him to those who come froma distance, that he may have access to him at all times, and thatwhatever teaching he missed by absence should be repeated to himby the Perfect One's own lips. The Buddha heartily agreed, andAnanda was his personal attendant for the rest of the Buddha'slife.Shakyamuni was able to tame a dangerous robber and admittedhim into the community. He also bathed and treated a monk, whowas suffering from dysentery and had been neglected by the othermonks because he lay in his own excrement. On another occasionhe found that a leper understood the doctrine very well as heexplained that whatever has a beginning must have an end.About 491 BC when Shayamuni was 72, a schism arose in the community,because his cousin Devadatta wanted to take over as head of thecommunity; but Buddha refused, saying that he would not even turnit over to Shariputra or Maudgalyayana much less to a vile oneto be vomited like spit. Devadatta became resentful and used hismagical powers to win the favor of Prince Ajatashatru, the sonof King Shrenika Bimbisara. They plotted together to take overthe kingdom of Magadha and the Buddhist community. Bimbisara andthe Buddha were to be murdered; but since Bimbisara turned overhis kingdom to his son, he was merely put in prison. There hesoon died, though chronicles stated he was killed by his son.Hired killers were converted by the Buddha, but Devadatta triedto roll a huge boulder from Vulture Peak down upon him. However,only Shakyamuni's foot was scratched. Yet spilling the blood ofa Tathagata with murderous intent created terrible karma for Devadatta.When he had learned of his intent, the Buddha had already declaredthat Devadatta's words and actions were not to be considered asrepresenting the community in any way. Although he had gaineda few followers, these were persuaded to return to the real communityafter long sermons by Shariputra and Maudgalyayana when Devadattafell asleep after his own talk. Abandoned and with his psychicpowers destroyed by his evil intentions, Devadatta soon becameill and died.King Ajatashatru, who had also listened to Mahavira,was eventually converted by the Buddha; but his previous evilintentions and actions prevented him from attaining the enlightenmenthe might have achieved in that life. Ajatashatru married the daughterof the Kosala king Pasenadi, and Pasenadi's son married a maidenof the resentful Shakyas who was secretly of low birth. Her son,Vidudabha, swore revenge against the Shakyas. Pasenadi killedhis powerful general and his sons, replacing them with the nephewDigha Karayana. While Pasenadi was listening to the Buddha, Dighahurried off and put Vidudabha on the throne. Pasenadi tried toget help from Ajatasatru but died of exposure on the way to Rajagriha.Surveying the world, the Buddha became aware of Vidudabha'sintention to attack the Shakyas and three times was able to convincehim to turn back; but on the fourth time the Shakyas' karma forpoisoning the river could not be averted, and they were massacred.Enough Shakyas remained, however, to accept a portion of Shakyamuni'srelics after his death. When Shakyamuni was 79, both his chiefdisciples, Shariputra and Maudgalyayana, died. Shariputra diedin the home where he was born, but Maudgalyayana was killed byrobbers to balance karma from a former life.At the age of eighty the vitality of the Tathagata's body seemedto diminish, and he declared that he had only three months tolive. Ananda missed the opportunity to plead with him to stayuntil the end of the eon as Buddhas could do, and Ananda was laterblamed for that by the community. Finally Shakyamuni took hislast meal, ordering a smith named Cunda to give him some mushrooms(literally pig's food or pork) and give the monks other food andthen bury the rest of the mushrooms. Sharp sickness arose witha flow of blood and deadly pains, but the Buddha mindfully controlledthem and declared that he would die in the third watch of thenight. He sent word that Cunda was not to feel remorse but considerthis giving of alms of the greatest merit.Ananda asked the Buddha how he was to act toward women. TheBuddha advised him not to see them; but if he saw them, not tospeak to them; but if speaking, to exercise mindfulness. Thenhe said his burial was to be handled by the local Kshatriyas.That evening Ananda brought the local families to say goodby,and then the Buddha answered the questions of an ascetic namedSubhadda. Before going through the four stages of higher awarenessinto nirvana, the last words of the Buddha were, "Decay isinherent in all component things. Work out your salvation withdiligence."3Doctrine (Dharma)Having taught for forty-five years from his enlightenment tohis death, the Buddha left behind a large compendium of teachingsthat were memorized by various of his disciples. Since writingwas a rarity then in India, they were passed on through the communityuntil they were written down several centuries later. These earliesttexts are in the common Pali language and usually are dialogsbetween the Buddha and others. Often the Buddha emphasized thatit was more important for disciples to see the dharma (doctrine)than the Buddha, because the dharma would remain and waswhat they needed to practice to attain enlightenment and evenafterward. The third refuge for the Buddhist was in the community(sangha) of monks and nuns.The Buddha advised his followers not to feel ill will or getangry when others spoke against them, because this might disrupttheir self-mastery and prevent them from being able to judge whetherthe criticism was valid or not. For the same reason they shouldnot be overly glad when the doctrine is praised.In regard to the moral precepts, the Buddha described himselfas having put away the killing of living things, holding himselfaloof from the destruction of life. Having laid aside weapons,he is ashamed of roughness and full of mercy, being compassionateand kind to all creatures. He does not take what has not beengiven, is chaste, and speaks truth being faithful and trustworthy,not breaking his word to the world. He has put away lying andslander and does not raise quarrels. Thus does he live: as a binder together of those who are divided, an encourager of those who are friends, a peacemaker, a lover of peace, impassioned for peace, a speaker of words that make for peace.4In describing the fruits of living as a recluse the Buddhaemphasized to King Ajatasatru the importance of mindfulness towardthe ethical significance of every action and word. Then havingmastered the moral precepts, restrained the senses, endowed withmindfulness and self-possession, filled with content, the reclusechooses a lonely and quiet spot to meditate in order to purifythe mind of lusts, the wish to injure, ill temper, sloth, worry,irritability, wavering, and doubt.At the end of this long dialog King Ajatasatru confessed hissin in putting to death his father and asked to be a discipleof the blessed one. The Buddha accepted his confession and notedthat in the tradition of the noble ones' discipline whoever seesone's fault as a fault and correctly confesses it shall attainself-restraint in the future.The Buddha was quite a penetrating psychologist and describedthe psychological causality that leads to suffering in his theoryof pratitya-samutpada (dependent origination). Sorrow,lamentation, misery, grief, despair, old age, and death are allcaused by birth, which depends on existence, which depends onattachment, which depends on desire, which depends on sensation,which depends on contact, which depends on the six senses, whichdepend on name and form, which depend on consciousness, whichdepends on karma, which depends on ignorance. However, by endingignorance, then karma, consciousness, name and form, the six senses,contact, sensation, desire, attachment, existence, and birth withall the misery that comes after birth can be ended. Sensationand desire also lead to pursuit, decision, gain, passion, tenacity,possession, avarice, and guarding possessions, which can leadto blows and wounds, strife, quarreling, slander, and lies.This process is further described in a parable about an ancientkingdom where the celestial wheel symbolizing the dharmadisappeared. The king ignored the advice of the sages that heshould share some of his wealth with the destitute. This led towidespread poverty and theft. At first the king gave some wealthto a thief to solve his problem, but then not wanting to rewardstealing he ordered that thieves have their heads cut off. Thisled to the arming of the poor, increased violence associated withtheir stealing, and more murders. This also caused more lying,evil speaking, and false opinions. Eventually greed, adultery,perverted lust, and incest became common, followed by lack ofrespect for parents, religious teachers, and the heads of theclans. Human life became like hunters feel toward their game,and at times people treated each other like wild beasts. Finallydeciding to do something good, people started to abstain fromtaking life, which led to abstaining from taking what is not given,abstaining from lying, and abstaining from adultery. As the virtueswere practiced, the health of the society returned. When thishappens, a fully awakened one (Buddha) called Maitreya will come.Until then the Buddha recommended that people live as islandsunto themselves, taking the dharma as their refuge, lettingthe mind be filled with love, compassion, joy, and equanimity.In another dialog the Buddha clarified the meaning of the eightfoldpath by saying that right view is knowledge of the four nobletruths of suffering, its cause, cessation, and the way that leadsto its cessation. Right aspiration is towards benevolence andkindness. Right speech is to abstain from lying, slander, abuse,and idle talk. Right doing is to abstain from taking life, fromtaking what is not given, and from carnal indulgence. Right livelihoodis only described as putting away wrong livelihood. Right effortis toward preventing bad states from arising, putting away evilthat has arisen, toward good states arising, and nurturing goodthat does arise.Right mindfulness is being self-possessed and mindful in regardto the body, overcoming craving and dejection in feelings, thoughts,and ideas. Right rapture is being aloof from sensuous appetitesand evil ideas, entering into and abiding in the four levels ofhigher awareness. The first of these has cogitation and deliberationborn of solitude and is full of ease and joy. The second suppressescogitation and deliberation evoking by itself concentration, calmingthe mind and dwelling on high. In the third stage one is disenchantedwith joy, is calmly contemplative and aware. The fourth stateleaves behind ease and transcends former happiness and melancholyby entering into the rapture of pure mindfulness and equanimity,feeling neither ease nor ill.According to the Buddha the four motives that lead to evildeeds are partiality, enmity, stupidity, and fear. The six channelsfor dissipating wealth are being addicted to liquors, frequentingthe streets at unseemly hours, haunting fairs, gambling, bad companions,and idleness.These ethical teachings and discourses on many other subjectsare from the sayings (Nikaya) of the Buddha in the firstof the Three Baskets (Tripitaka) that make up thePali Canon. The second basket contains the discipline (Vinaya)books for the monks and nuns. Later commentaries on the originalteachings make up the third basket of "higher doctrines"(Abhidharma). The first book in this last collection hasbeen called A Manual of Psychological Ethics (Dhamma-sangani).The Dhamma-sangani lists the good states of consciousnessas the following: contact, feeling, perception, volition, thought,application, sustained thinking, zest, ease, self-collectedness;the faculties of faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration, insight,ideation, gladness, and life; right views, endeavor, mindfulness,and concentration; the powers of faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration,insight, conscientiousness, and the fear of blame; the absenceof greed, hate, dullness, covetousness, and malice; serenity,lightness, plasticity, facility, fitness, and directness in mindand mental factors; intelligence, quiet, intuition, grasp, andbalance.The list of bad states of consciousness is similar except thatthe views, intention, endeavor, and concentration are wrong insteadof right, and there is unconscientiousness, disregard of blame,lust, dullness, and covetousness instead of their absence. Ina further discussion of these ties the perversion of rules andrituals and the disposition to dogmatize are added to covetousness,lust, and ill will. To the cankers (asavas) of sensuality,rebirth, and ignorance is added speculative opinion about uselessmetaphysical questions such as whether the world is eternal, thesoul is infinite, the soul and body are different, or whetherone exists after death.A work on human types (Puggala-pannatti) analyzes individualsin terms of many characteristics such as the six sense organsand their objects (including mind as the sixth sense); eighteenelements of cognition, twenty-two faculties or functions, andsuch negative traits as being wrathful, vengeful, a hypocrite,a charlatan, jealous, avaricious, shameless, impudent, disobedient,associating with the wicked, having unguarded senses, being immoderateas to food, forgetful, unmindful, infringing moral laws, havingwrong views, and internal and external fetters as well as theiropposites. However, these texts mostly consist of dry and abstractlists with many repetitions.DhammapadaOne of the greatest literary works of early Buddhism is theDhammapada, which was placedamong the smaller sayings in the first basket of sutras althoughit contains 423 stanzas in 26 chapters. Put together from highlightsof Buddha's ethical teachings, it was in existence by the timeof Emperor Ashoka in the third century BC. It begins with theidea that we are the result of our thoughts, impure or pure.Those who harbor resentful thoughts toward others, believingthey were insulted, hurt, defeated, or cheated, will suffer fromhatred, because hate never conquers hatred. Yet hate is conqueredby love, which is an eternal law. Those who live for pleasureswith uncontrolled senses will be overthrown by temptation. Thosewho cleanse themselves from impurity, grounded in virtues, possessingself-control and truth are worthy of the yellow robe. Those whoimagine truth in untruth and see untruth in truth follow vaindesires.Passion enters an unreflecting mind like rain comes into abadly roofed house. Wrong-doers suffer and grieve in this worldand the next, but the virtuous find joy and happiness in both.The second chapter is on awareness and begins: Awareness is the path of immortality; thoughtlessness is the path of death. Those who are aware do not die. The thoughtless are as if dead already. The wise having clearly understood this delight in awareness and find joy in the knowledge of the noble ones. These wise ones, meditative, persevering, always using strong effort, attain nirvana, the supreme peace and happiness.5It is good to control the mind, but thought is difficult toguard and restrain. Yet a tamed mind brings happiness. A wiseperson, who shows you your faults, may be followed as though tohidden treasures. The wise, who teach, admonish, and forbid thewrong, will be loved by the good and hated by the bad. The wisemold themselves, as engineers of canals guide water and carpentersshape wood. The path of those who have stilled their passionsand are indifferent to pleasure, perceiving release and unconditionalfreedom, is difficult to understand like that of birds in thesky.Whoever conquers oneself is greater than the person who conquersin battle a thousand times a thousand people. In regard to punishmentthis text warns that those who inflict pain on others will notfind happiness after death. Self is the master of the self, anda person who is self-controlled finds a master few can find. Byoneself wrong is done and suffered, and by oneself one is purified.In regard to the world the Buddha recommended not followinga bad law any more than a wrong idea or thoughtlessness. He advisedus not to be attached to the world but to follow the path of virtue,for the world is like a bubble or mirage. Most of the world isblind, but the wise are led out of it by conquering temptation.The teaching of the awakened ones is not to blame nor strike,but to live alone and restrained under the law, moderate in eating,and practicing the highest consciousness.Joy is the natural state for those who do not hate those whohate them. Craving is the worst disease and disharmony the greatestsorrow. Health and contentment are the greatest wealth, trustingthe best relationship, and nirvana the highest joy. Grief comesfrom pleasure, attachment, greed, lust, and craving. Anger maybe overcome by love, wrong by good, avarice by generosity, anda liar by truth. The wise hurt no one and always control theirbodies. There is no fire like lust, no chain like hate; there is no snare like folly, no torrent like craving. The faults of others are easy to see; our own are difficult to see. A person winnows others' faults like chaff, but hides one's own faults, like a cheater hides bad dice. If a person is concerned about the faults of others and is always inclined to be offended, one's own faults grow and one is far from removing faults.6Anyone who tries to settle a matter by violence is not just.The wise consider calmly what is right and wrong, proceeding ina way that is nonviolent and fair. For the Buddhist one is notnoble because of injuring living beings; rather one is noble,because one does not injure living beings. Whoever realizes thatall created things suffer, perish, and are unreal transcends pain.There is no meditation without wisdom and no wisdom without meditation,for in meditating one becomes wise; but in not meditating wisdomis lost. Whoever has wisdom and meditation is close to nirvana. Lift up your self by yourself; examine your self by yourself. Thus self-protected and attentive you will live joyfully, mendicant. For self is the master of self; self is the refuge of self. Therefore tame yourself, like a merchant tames a noble horse. Joyful and faithful in the doctrine of the Buddha, the mendicant finds peace, the joy of ending natural existence.7No one should hurt a holy one, but no holy one should strikeback. The sooner the wish to injure disappears, the sooner allsuffering will stop. The holy are free of all attachment, anger,and lust. Though having committed no offense, the holy bear reproach,ill treatment, and imprisonment. They are tolerant with the intolerant,peaceful with the violent, and free from greed among the greedy,speaking true words that are useful and not harsh. The holy callnothing their own, letting go of attachment to humans and risingabove attachment to the gods. Eventually a holy one knows one'sformer lives, perceives heaven and hell, and reaches the end ofbirths, having attained perfection.Questions of King MilindaAnother great literary work of the Theravada ("way ofthe elders") school of Buddhism is The Questions of KingMilinda. Menander was one of the Greek kings who ruled Bactriaafter the conquests of Alexander, carrying Greek power furtherinto India than any of his predecessors in the last half of thesecond century BC; his name was Hinduized to Milinda by the unknownBuddhist author, who wrote this work a century or so later.The philosophical dialog is preceded by a prophecy from theprevious lives of the two individuals whereby the Buddha foretoldthey would have this discussion some five centuries hence. Whileliving as a god in a heavenly world, Mahasena is persuaded tobe reborn as Nagasena so that he could help to enlighten thisking. King Milinda delights in philosophical discussion and hasnever met his match until he encounters Nagasena. He asks thesage every difficult question he can think of and is continuallyamazed at the sagacious replies of Nagasena. In this way the Buddhistdoctrine is thoroughly tested and explained.Even the first question asking his name elicits the responsefrom Nagasena that there is no permanent individuality. King Milindaasks then who it is who lives, receives gifts, devotes himselfto meditation, attains enlightenment, etc. Like a chariot it isnone of the separate parts though their combination comes underthe name "chariot," and he is known as Nagasena. Nagasenawants to know if Milinda will be discussing as a scholar who maybe convicted of error or as a king who punishes disagreement,and King Milinda agrees to discuss as a scholar.The next day the king asks Nagasena what is the goal of hisrenunciation. The highest aim is the end of sorrow and the completepassing away. Sinful beings are reindividualized after death;sinless ones are not. True wisdom is cutting off one's failings,and this is accomplished by good conduct, faith, perseverance,mindfulness, and meditation. Good conduct is achieved by virtueand wisdom. Faith frees the heart of lust, malice, mental sloth,pride, and doubt. Perseverance renders support, and mindfulnessdiscerns the good qualities from the bad; but meditation is theleader of all the good qualities. The one who will not be bornagain is more aware and, though suffering physical pain, is freeof mental pain.But if there is no soul or individuality, how does reincarnationoccur, and what reincarnates? Nagasena explains the doctrine ofkarma - how causes have their effects even from one life to thenext. One who sets a fire is responsible for the other thingsthat are burned by the spread of the fire. A person who preparespoison and drinks it oneself as well as giving it to others isresponsible for one's own pain and shares responsibility for thepain of the others too. According to the Buddha it is karma thatcauses the many differences among people.The king asks why the recluses are so concerned about takingcare of their bodies if they don't love their bodies. The bodyis like a wound that must be treated with salve, oil, and a bandageeven though one does not love the wound. Although Buddhism isin many ways a pessimistic philosophy, Nagasena nonetheless findsmore merit than demerit, because eventually the wrong-doer acknowledgesthe wrong and feels remorse, eventually correcting and endingdemerit. Yet those who do well do not feel remorse but gladnessand peace and blissful feelings; thus good increases.After seven days of abstinence the king continues his discussionwith Nagasena, asking him about various dilemmas he found in theBuddhist doctrine. Nagasena solves every problem by giving variousillustrations. For example, the Buddha admitted Devadatta to theorder even though he knew that he would cause a schism becausehe perceived that even this contact with the Buddha would keepDevadatta from becoming even worse. Social prejudice is transcendedas even a prostitute is able to perform a miracle by the powerof truth.Eleven advantages come to those who feel love toward all beingsand put it into practice. Such people sleep in peace, awake inpeace, have no sinful dreams, are dear to people and spirits,watched over by gods, not harmed by fire nor poison nor a sword,are easily tranquilized, calm, undismayed by death, and if arhatshipis not attained, are reborn in the Brahma world. Though of a lovingdisposition, Prince Sama was shot by a poisoned arrow, becausethe virtues are not inherent in the person but are only effectiveat that moment while in use. The king is convinced that the feltpresence of love has the power to ward off all evil mental states.Nagasena agrees heartily: Yes! The practice of love is productive of all virtuous conditions of mind both in good and in evil ones. To all beings whatsoever, who are in the bonds of conscious existence, is this practice of love of great advantage, and therefore ought it to be sedulously cultivated.8The king asks Nagasena whether virtue or vice is more powerful.The karma from vice seems to be effectively punished, this balancingin fact causes it to die away rather quickly; while virtue becauseof its grandeur lasts for a long time. Because virtue is rarelyrewarded immediately as vice is often so punished, the resultsof virtue usually are received more abundantly in the lives tocome. Also according to Nagasena vice only affects the doer, whilevirtue overspreads the whole world of gods and people. By givingthe individual no peace the remorse from wrong-doing leads morequickly to the eradication of that evil.Finally at the end of their discussions King Milinda ordereda building constructed for Nagasena and the monks, turned hiskingdom over to his son, abandoned the household life to becomehomeless, grew in insight, and eventually became an arhat himself.Community (Sangha)After the Buddha's death in 483 BC, the first Buddhist Councilwas led by Mahakassapa during which Ananda recited the discourseson the doctrine and Upali the rules of the discipline. These werethen memorized and became the first two baskets of the Pitaka,the Sutta and Vinaya. Buddhism added abstinencefrom intoxicants to the four cardinal rules of abstaining fromviolence, stealing, lying, and sexual misconduct.At Buddhist gatherings the Pratimokshasutra was recited,followed by confessions of monks who felt they had violated anyof it. The four offenses that led to expulsion were having sexualintercourse, taking what was not given, taking of a human lifeor persuading anyone to commit suicide, and falsely boasting ofsupernatural attainments. The thirteen offenses deserving suspensionincluded sexual misdemeanors, harming living beings by buildinga hut, falsely accusing another monk of a major offense, persistingin causing divisions in the community, and refusing to move whenadmonished by other monks. Other minor violations were eatingbetween meals, attending secular entertainment, using unguentsand jewelry, using high or luxurious beds, and handling money.A century after the death of the Buddha the monks of Vaishalirelaxed the rules on ten minor points, leading to contributionsof money to the monks. These were protested by the elder Yasa,who organized a council to condemn the changed rules. The easternersfrom Vaishali became known as Mahasanghikas, and the traditionalwesterners Theravada. According to tradition Theravada soon dividedinto eleven sects and Mahasanghikas into seven. Thus Buddhismwas administered locally, though a monk could reside in any monasteryirrespective of sect.In the third century BC the Emperor Ashoka tried to unite theBuddhists, but he was stricken with remorse when his ministerbeheaded monks refusing to comply. Advised by the most learnedmonk of the time, Moggaliputta Tissa, all monks who did not followthe Theravada were dismissed from the community, and refutationsof heretical views were published in the Kathavatthu ofthe Abhidamma basket. The number of sects was reduced,but others later denied that Ashoka ever held such a council.Regardless of whether that council was held, the support of Ashokafor Buddhism greatly expanded its influence so that it was evenadopted and promoted by Greek rulers such as Menander.The deification of the Buddha by the non-Theravadins led tothe ideal of the Bodhisattva or future Buddha instead ofthe mere arhat. Bodhisattvas are enlightened persons, whopostpone their own nirvana in order to help save all sentientcreatures. This along with the conception of the pure mind (vijnana)eventually led to the "Greater Vehicle" or MahayanaBuddhism.According to Edward Conze the earliest part of the PrajnaparamitaSutra is from about the first century BC.9 It explains thatthe Bodhisattva comprehending the truth does not retire into theblessed rest but dwells in wisdom to help others. In this wisdomone finds that all truths are empty. The Bodhisattva, assuredof future Buddhahood by previous Buddhas, whether absorbed intrance or not, knows the essential original nature. Seeing everythingand everyone as illusion, the Bodhisattva is not attached to anything,while guiding all beings to nirvana. The world is transcendedin this practice of wisdom, the highest perfection. Later duringthe Christian era this form of Buddhism was to spread into Chinaand throughout Asia.Among the major religions Buddhism is unusual, like Jainism,in that it did not originally believe in God, though it recognizedgods and goddesses and heavens and hells. Less stringent and morepopular than the ascetic Jainism, it's emphasis on ethical behaviorand the quest for enlightenment appealed to both those who renouncedthe world and laypeople. Though it also offered excellent individualmodels of ethical behavior and friendly attitudes, except in itsreligious community it was unable to convert society as a wholeto its way of nonviolence any more than Jainism could.Nevertheless in my opinion both Jainism and Buddhism even moreprovided outstanding examples of supremely ethical attitudes andactions. They were not afraid to criticize the priestly corruptionsof Brahminism nor the violent ambitions of the ruling class (Kshatriyas).Mahavira and the Buddha were great teachers and leaders, and thenon-theistic religions they founded nourished and enriched thespiritual tradition of India and encouraged ethical behavior amongits people.Perhaps the greatest contribution they both made was to makenonviolence a noble path in a culture where the word for noble(Aryan) had stood for racism based on color and the violent conquestof India. Their devotion to truthfulness and their ability tolive simple lives with few material possessions as well as theirchastity kept their lives relatively pure and free of entanglementsand exploitation. Though surely not without their individual imperfectionsand occasional schisms, the good contributed to the world by theseteachings and the lives of their best followers must have beensubstantial.Notes1. Samyutta Nikaya 5:420 tr. Sanderson Beck.2. Thomas, Edward J., The Life of the Buddha, p. 88.3. Maha Parinibbana Suttanta 6:7 (156).4. Brahma-Jala Sutta 1:9 (4).5. Dhammapada 2:1-3 tr. Sanderson Beck.6. Ibid. 18:17-19.7. Ibid. 25:20-22.8. The Questions of King Milinda tr. T. W. Rhys Davids,4:4:16.9. The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines & ItsVerse Summary tr. Edward Conze, p. x.Copyright © 1998-2004 by Sanderson BeckThis chapter has been published in the book INDIA & Southeast Asia to 1800. For ordering information, please click here.ContentsVedas and UpanishadsMahavira and JainismBuddha and BuddhismPolitical and Social EthicsHindu PhilosophyLiterature of IndiaIndia 30 BC to 1300Delhi Sultans andRajas 1300-1526Mughal Empire 1526-1707Marathas and the English Company 1707-1800 British India 1800-1848 British India's Wars 1848-1881 India's Renaissance 1881-1905 India's Freedom Struggle 1905-1918 Gandhi and India 1919-1941 Tibet, Nepal, and Ceylon 1800-1941 Southeast Asia to 1875Pacific Islands to 1875Summary and EvaluationBibliographyChronological IndexBUDDHA'S FIRST SERMONDHAMMAPADA (PATH OF TRUTH)BECK index |
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