About site: Philosophy/Eastern Philosophy/Confucianism/Neo-Confucianism - Neo-Confucianism

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Title: Philosophy/Eastern Philosophy/Confucianism/Neo-Confucianism - Neo-Confucianism Short article by Michael C. Kalton.

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Neo-ConfucianismNeo-ConfucianismNeo-Confucianism: The synthesis of Taoist cosmology andBuddhist spirituality around the core of Confucian concern withsociety and government, a synthesis which predominated in theintellectual and spiritual life of China, Korea, and Japan priorto the modern period.History1) Confucianism: There were two interrelated facets in the tradition founded byConfucius (551-479 B.C.): government and proper socialorder were a major concern on the one hand, and on the other itpresented a profound vision of the qualities and modes of conductnecessary to be a full and worthy human being. These wereintimately linked, for in the Confucian view morality or humanityconsisted primarily in the cultivation and conduct of propersocial relationships, and the essence of government was morality.Confucius was China's first private educator. His role was totrain young men for service in government and his mostfundamental conviction was that the essential preparationfor such service must be character formation: true learning wasmoral learning, and society should be ruled (ordered) by ameritocracy based on such learning.During the Han dynasty (206 B.C.-220 A.D.) thisclassical Confucian core was effectively synthesized withelements of what had originally been competing schools ofthought, most notably the cosmological speculations of theYin-Yang and Five Agents philosophies. Man, society, andgovernment were woven together with the cosmos in a complexsystem of correspondences that described anall-encompassing underlying order, a fittingreflection of the unity of the great Chinese empire.But the vision that reflected the success of the Han dynastybecame less plausible when Chinese society again slid towardchaos as the dynasty declined. In the minds of many themalfunction and disorder of the last decades of the Handiscredited not only the government, but the ideology thathad been sponsored by the government and legitimated it.China was ready for something new. In the centuries ofdisorder and division that followed the collapse of the Han,Indian Buddhism competed with a resurgent religious Taoism forpredominance. The foreign tradition brought with it ametaphysical and ascetical sophistication hitherto unknownin China, and as the Chinese came to understand and appreciatethese doctrines Buddhism became a magnet for the best minds andmost profound spirits. Confucianism as a conventional socialmorality or a form of learning associated with governmentservice was commonly regarded as a complement to the moreprofound philosophy and spirituality of Buddhism. But itsapproach to self-cultivation through good habits andself-discipline seemed mundane and banal in comparisonwith an enlightenment to be achieved through the inner disciplineof meditation; its cosmology looked like naive commonsense incomparison with the metaphysics of emptiness, one mind,all-in-one-one-in-all, and the likewith which the various Buddhist schools supported theirmeditative disciplines.2) Neo-Confucianism:Buddhism reached a creative and flourishing peak during theTang dynasty (618-907); but the Sung dynasty(979-1279) saw a reaction to the "foreign" religion and acreative revitalization of the stagnant Confucian tradition. Inthe political world this took the form of a reform movement whichattempted to address the pressing socioeconomic problems ofthe day by a creative reinterpretation of ancient ideal Confucianinstitutions. But of more lasting importance was the intellectualand spiritual reshaping of the tradition. In a milieu long shapedby Buddhist predominance, men again began to take theConfucian classics seriously. Not surprisingly, they foundwhat they were looking for: a long "lost" ascetical doctrinedealing with the cultivation of the inner life of the mind, and ametaphysics that could frame this with a philosophical account ofsagehood, self-cultivation, and, ultimately, theuniverse.The morphology of this renewed or "neo" Confucian visionequals the compass and scope of Buddhism. It was effected,however, not by borrowing, but by a creative reinterpretation ofthe traditional Confucian core to meet new intellectual andspiritual expectations. It answers the Buddhist transcendence ofthe mundane by transcendentally grounding the mundane: humaninterpersonal relationships and concern for society andgovernment are inseparably united with deepened asceticalpractice as the path to ultimate personal fulfillment. There areNeo-Confucian retreats, but no Neo-Confucianmonasteries.3) The Founders:The four main architects of this new vision during the earlyyears were Chou Tun-i (1017-1073), Chang Tsai(1020-1077), and his nephews, the brothers Ch'eng Hao(1032-1083) and Ch'eng I (1033-1108). Chou'sDiagram of the Supreme Ultimate appears in chapter 1of the Ten Diagrams; it became the cornerstone ofNeo-Confucian metaphysics. Chang Tsai elaborated a monisticmetaphysics based, like Chou's Diagram, on the Book ofChanges. Although his metaphysical system was largelysupplanted by that developed by his nephews, his work was ofseminal importance for Neo-Confucian psychological theory.2Confucian ethics was reestablished on a metaphysicalfoundation by his famous essay, The Western Inscription, whichappears in chapter 2. The Ch'eng brothers were responsible forthe introduction of the concept li, "principle," whichbecame the pivot point of Neo-Confucian metaphysics,psychology, and ascetical doctrine.4) Chu Hsi and Wang Yang-mingThe central figure in this Confucian revival, however, was ChuHsi (1130-1200). He creatively synthesized the ratherdisparate contributions of these earlier thinkers into acoherent, powerful vision. His commentaries on the Four Books3wove a classical foundation for this vision so persuasively thatin 1313 his interpretation was made normative for the civilservice examinations. The Ch'eng-Chu school, so calledbecause of the centrality of the Ch'engs' contribution to ChuHsi's system, thus achieved the status of an officiallysanctioned orthodoxy.Though it maintained this central position down to the modernera, the Ch'eng-Chu school was not the only school ofNeo-Confucian thought. The most notable alternative was theschool of Wang Yang-ming (1472-1529), often referredto as the "Lu-Wang school" because Wang's thought bore amarked similarity to the ideas of Chu Hsi's contemporary andrival, Lu Chiu-yüan (Hsiang-shan1139-1193).The "Lu-Wang school" equated mind with li orprinciple and so followed an approach to self-cultivationthat was based on the mind's direct intuitive grasp of the properway, as opposed to the Ch'eng-Chu emphasis on the need fordiligent study or "the investigation of things." Chu Hsi'sschool vehemently rejected this as a form of Ch'an (Zen) Buddhismdecked out in Confucian garb, but the Lu-Wang school becamea strong movement, overshadowing the orthodox traditionthroughout the remainder of the Ming period. That it found noequal acceptance or popularity in Korea constitutes one of themost obvious of the important differences between thesubsequent Chinese and Korean traditions.5) The Four BooksThe Neo-Confucian movement developed metaphysical andascetical dimensions essential to revitalizing the Confuciantradition. In the course of this, it also reshaped the classicalcanon as attention focused particularly on works which spoke tothese new concerns. The Great Learning was extricated fromits obscure position in the voluminous Book of Ritesto become the most authoritative description of the process ofself-cultivation. Another section of the Book ofRites, the Doctrine of the Mean, likewise attained newprominence as an independent classic; it furnished vital elementsof a metaphysically grounded psychological theory and a depictionof sagehood. The Mencius, long well known butancillary to the classical corpus, now became one of the mostimportant classical authorities; more than any other ancientsource, it spoke to Neo-Confucian concerns regarding themind, human nature, and cultivation of the inner life. TheAnalects, the classic containing the words of Confuciushimself recorded by his direct disciples, remained, as always,fundamental: the Sung Confucians understood themselves asfinally recovering the full meaning of the ancient deposit ofsage wisdom, and it was necessary that the words of the Masterhimself inform and sanction their vision. These four texts,collectively referred to as "the Four Books," became the new coreof the Confucian canon; intensively studied, analyzed, anddebated, they furnished much of the substance and vocabularyof Neo-Confucian discourse.

Short	article	by	Michael
C.	Kalton.

http://faculty.washington.edu/mkalton/NeoConfucianism.htm

Neo-Confucianism 2008 October

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