| Related sites for http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Revolutions_of_1848_in_France |
| Wenzel,_Eberhard Contains a curriculum vitae, list of publications and a large collection of links to a variety of topics on the Internet. | | Fundamental_Rights_Under_Privacy_in_the_USA Annotated list of U.S. Supreme Court cases on privacy. [PDF] | | Portingale Photographs of Jefferson Portingale and family, compiled by Jason Tree. | | Skinner_House A UUA imprint that publishes titles on Unitarian Universalist history, theology, biography, and worship. | | Bible_Methodist_Missions Official site of the Bible Methodist Church Missions Department. This organization supports mission work in Mexico, the Philippines, and Africa. It includes news and pictures from the missionaries. | | Church_of_the_Living_God,_C_W_F_F__Temple_#69 Detroit, Michigan. Pastor, schedule of services, overview of ministries. Includes a message from the pastor. | | Singles_of_Faith Personal ads for single Christians. Offers monthly local community service projects nationwide. Trains members in relationship skills and spiritual growth. | | Sethites_In_Aquaba Led by guides, Alexander finds two Sethite Islands in Aquaba. | | YID_-_Your_Ideal_Date Personal ads for Jewish singles. Information provided by users users is screened by staff. Includes chat. | | Muskegon_Rescue_Mission Muskegon, Michigan. Offers emergency shelter, spiritual counseling, support services, food, clothing and thrift store. Includes statistics, how to help and programs. | | Temple_of_the_Dark_Moon Learn about Wicca and magick from a Southern Hemispheric perspection, the environment, ancient sites, workshops, and courses. | | Mission_Impossible Christian organization helps the poor in Raleigh, North Carolina, and Tocoma, Washington, in the United States, meet financial obligations by paying utilities, housing, and medical bills under certain | | Snopes_com__Rumors_of_War Rumor control site. Examination of claims regarding the attacks and aftermath, including examples, origins, references, and related links. | | Through_the_Smoke_Screen__Another_Philip_Morris_Front_Exposed Article on Philip Morris, the NSA, and Contributions Watch. | | Flickr__Visitors_of_Cemeteries A group for those who frequent cemeteries and wish to show the photos they have taken. | | Dragging_Canoe Biography of the Cherokee leader and text of his most famous speech. | | Corporate_Alliance_to_End_Partner_Violence A national non-profit organization with a mission to education and aid in the prevention of partner violence. | | CCM_Mix Christian hit music from the 1970s thru today. | | Martin_Luther Frank Manheim biography in the Classical Composers Database focuses on how the reformer revolutionized church music in the 16th century. | | George_W__Bush_as_Texas_Governor_and_U_S__President Analysis of Bush's policies and positions, primarily from his time as governor, during election 2000, and during his first few months as President. |
|
French Revolution of 1848 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ French Revolution of 1848 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from The Revolutions of 1848 in France) Jump to: navigation, search  This article does not cite any references or sources.Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed. (May 2008)The February 1848 Revolution in France ended the reign of King Louis-Philippe, and led to the creation of the French Second Republic (1848-1852).The revolution established the principle of the "right to work" (droit au travail), and decided to establish "National Workshops" for the unemployed. At the same time a sort of industrial parliament was established at the Luxembourg Palace, under the presidency of Louis Blanc, with the object of preparing a scheme for the organization of labour. These tensions between liberal Orleanist and Radical Republicans and Socialists would cause the June Days Uprising a few months later.Contents1 Background1.1 Economic and international influences2 The Second Republic2.1 The rise of conservatism within the Second Republic2.2 Class Struggles within the Revolution2.3 The End of the Revolution in France3 1848 Revolution in literature4 See also//[edit] Background  Louis-Philippe I, the last King of the FrenchAs per the Charter of 1814, Louis XVIII ruled France as the head of a constitutional monarchy. Upon Louis XVIII's death, his brother, the Count of Artois, ascended to the throne, becoming Charles X. Supported by the ultra-royalists, Charles X was an extremely unpopular reactionary monarch whose aspirations were far more grand than those of his brother, Louis XVIII. Charles X had no desire to rule as a constitutional monarch, taking various steps to strengthen his own authority as monarch and weaken that of the lower house.In 1830, Charles X issued the Four Ordinances of St.Cloud. These ordinances abolished freedom of the press, reduced the electorate by 75%, and dissolved the lower house. This action provoked an immediate reaction from the citizenry, and they soon revolted against the monarchy during the Three Glorious Days of July 1830. As a result, Louis Philippe, of the Orleanist branch, rose to power, replacing the old Charter by the Charter of 1830, and his rule became known as the July Monarchy.Nicknamed the "Bourgeois Monarch", Louis Philippe sat at the head of a moderately liberal state controlled mainly by educated elites. Supported by the Orleanists, he was opposed on his right by the Legitimists (former ultra-royalists) and on his left by the Republicans and Socialists. Under his rule, privileged groups were favored. Elitism resulted in the disenfranchisement of much of the middle and working classes, with only roughly 1% of the population having the right to vote by 1848. Even though France had a free press and trial by jury, only landholders were permitted to vote, which alienated the petty bourgeoisie from the high bourgeoisie. Louis Philippe was viewed as generally indifferent to the needs of society, especially to those members of the middle class who were excluded from the political arena. Early in 1848, some Orleanist liberals, such as Adolphe Thiers, had turned against him, disappointed by Louis Philippe's opposition to parliamentarism.Alexis de Tocqueville had observed, "We are sleeping together on a volcano . . . A wind of revolution blows, the storm is on the horizon." Lacking the property qualifications to vote, the lower classes were about to erupt in revolt.[edit] Economic and international influencesThe French middle class watched changes in Britain with interest. When Britain's Reform Act of 1832 extended enfranchisement to anybody paying £10 or more per year (previously the vote was restricted to landholders), France's free press took interest. While the working class was perhaps slightly better off than Britain's[citation needed], unemployment threw skilled workers down to the level of the proletariat. The only social (nominal) law of the July Monarchy was passed in 1841, prohibiting the use of child labor from children under 8 years of age and the use of night labor from children less than 13 years old. This law was routinely flouted.The year 1846 saw a financial crisis and bad harvests, and the following year saw an economic depression. A poor railroad system hindered aid efforts, and the Peasant rebellions that resulted were forcefully crushed. Perhaps a third of Paris was on the dole. "Dangerous" writers proliferated such as Louis Blanc ("The right to work") and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon ("Property is theft!", "God is evil"); secret societies such as the Saint-Simonians sprang up.[edit] The Second Republic It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into French Second Republic. (Discuss)!["Messieurs Victor Hugo and Emile de Girardin try to raise Prince Louis upon a shield [in the heroic Roman fashion]: not too steady!" Honoré Daumier's satirical lithograph published in Charivari, December 11, 1848.](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/DaumerHugoLouisNapoleon1848.jpg/260px-DaumerHugoLouisNapoleon1848.jpg) "Messieurs Victor Hugo and Emile de Girardin try to raise Prince Louis upon a shield [in the heroic Roman fashion]: not too steady!" Honoré Daumier's satirical lithograph published in Charivari, December 11, 1848.On February 26th, 1848, the liberal opposition came together to organize a provisional government, called the Second Republic. Two major goals of this republic were Universal suffrage and Unemployment relief. Universal male suffrage was enacted on March 2, giving France nine million new voters. As in all other European nations, women did not have the right to vote. However, during this time a proliferation of political clubs emerged, including women's organizations. Relief for the unemployed was achieved through National Workshops, which guaranteed French citizens' "right to work". In 1848, 479 newspapers were founded. There was also a 54% decline in the number of businesses in Paris, as most of the wealthy had left; there was a corresponding decline in the luxury trade and credit was unobtainable.[edit] The rise of conservatism within the Second RepublicThe provisional government was wildly disorganized. After roughly a month, conservatives began to oppose the new government, using the rallying cry "order", which the new republic lacked. Popular uncertainty about the liberal foundations of the provisional government became apparent in the April elections, where, despite the agitation from the left, voters elected a constituent assembly which was primarily moderate and conservative. In May, Jacques-Charles Dupont de l'Eure, chairman of the provisional government, made way for the Executive Commission, a body of state acting as Head of State with five co-presidents.As is often the case in revolutions, the 1848 revolution saw a major split between the Parisian citizens and those from the more rural areas. The majority of the French population resided in the countryside as in 1848 most people were still tied to the land. However, the radicals in Paris were determined to keep the revolutionary movement alive by pressuring the government to head an international "crusade" for democracy, in which they promoted the independence of states, such as Poland, which had, at the time, been divided amongst and controlled by the foreign powers of Prussia, Russia, and Austria, and was also undergoing its own period of revolt (See Wielkopolska Uprising).The government set out to establish a stronger economy and provide social services. New taxes were passed on the landed class, peasants, and small farmers, with the taxes intended to pay for social services for the unemployed in the cities. The taxes were widely ignored, and the new government lost the support of rural France. Hard-working rural farmers did not want to pay for unemployed city people and their new "Right to Work," which ballooned the population of Paris with far more job seekers than there were jobs. Some jobs were provided, such as building roads and re-planting trees, but it was clear the demands of government were far more pressing than the revolutionaries had foreseen. Painting of a barricade on Rue Soufflot (with the Panthéon behind), Paris, June 1848. By Horace Vernet.The need for organization was imminent. Evidence of this is in the victory of the "Party of Order". On June 21, 1848, led by ideology far more conservative than had initially created the provisional government, the dominant members of the French state closed the National Workshops. This enraged many of the artisans and workers of Paris. Between June 23rd and June 26th, in what came to be known as the "June Days Uprising", the army executed a systematic assault against the revolutionary Parisian citizenry, targeting the blockaded areas of the city. Before, workers and petite bourgeoisie had fought together, but now, lines were tighter. The working classes had been abandoned by the bourgeois politicians who founded the provisional government. This would prove fatal to the Second Republic, which, without the support of the working classes, could not continue.The "Party of Order" moved quickly to consolidate the conservative nature of the revolution, appointing general and statesman Louis Eugène Cavaignac to the head of the French state. Later, on the 10th of December, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte was elected president of the French Republic.[edit] Class Struggles within the RevolutionTo the French elite, the June Days uprising was something of a red scare. Karl Marx saw the "June Days" uprising as strong evidence of class conflict. Marx saw the revolution as being directed by the desires of the middle-class. While the bourgeoisie agitated for "proper participation", the workers themselves had other concerns. Many of the participants in the 1848 Revolution were of the petite bourgeoisie (the owners of small properties, merchants, shopkeepers, etc.), outnumbering the working classes (unskilled laborers working in mines, factories and stores, paid for their ability to perform manual labor and other work rather than their expertise) by about two to one. Therefore the provisional government, created to address the concerns of the liberal bourgeoisie, did not have enough of a foothold in the working classes. Support for the provisional government was especially weak in the countryside, where a vast amount of France's population was agricultural and traditionally less revolutionary. Though those in the countryside did have their own concerns, such as food shortages as a result of bad harvests, the concerns of the bourgeoisie were still too far-off from those of the lower classes. Also, the memory of the French Revolution was still fresh in the minds of the French. The Thermidorian reaction and the ascent of Napoleon III to the throne are evidence that the people preferred the safety of an able dictatorship to the uncertainty of revolution. Thus, one might argue, without the support of these large lower classes, the revolution of 1848 would not carry through, despite the hopes of the liberal bourgeoisie.[edit] The End of the Revolution in FrancePolitics continued to tilt to the right, and the era of revolution in France came to an end. Louis Napoleon's family name of Napoleon rallied support, and after sweeping the elections he returned to the old order, purging republicans and returning the "vile multitude" (Thiers) to its former place. By the December 2, 1851 coup, he dissolved the National Assembly without having the constitutional right to do so, and became the sole ruler of France. Cells of resistance surfaced, but were put down, and the Second Republic was over. He reestablished universal suffrage, feared by the Republicans at the time who correctly expected the country-side to vote against the Republic, Louis Napoleon took the title Emperor Napoleon III, and the Second Empire began.[edit] 1848 Revolution in literatureGustave Flaubert's novel L'éducation sentimentale uses the 1848 revolution as a backdrop for its story.Karl Marx's Essay The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (1852) describes the 1848 revolution as a class struggle.Laura Kalpakian's novel "Cosette" uses the 1848 revolution as a primary part of the plot.Sylvia Townsend Warner's novel "Summer Will Show" uses the 1848 as a primary part of the plot.Kurt Andersen's novel "Heyday_(novel)" begins with one of the protagonists witnessing and unintentionally participating in the 1848 revolution.[edit] See alsoSecond Republic (1848-1852)France in the nineteenth centuryHistory of socialismThe Revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areasJune Days UprisingHistory of the French Leftv • d • eInternational Revolutions of 1848Brazil | France | German states | Greater Poland | WallachiaHabsburg Empire and Hungary | Italian states and SicilyRetrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" Categories: Revolutions of 1848 | French Second Republic | July Monarchy | 1848 in FranceHidden categories: Articles lacking sources from May 2008 | All articles lacking sources | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements since August 2007 | All articles to be merged | Articles to be merged since December 2007 Views Article Discussion Edit this page History Personal tools Log in / create account if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Search Interaction About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact Wikipedia Donate to Wikipedia Help Toolbox What links here Related changesUpload fileSpecial pages Printable version Permanent linkCite this page Languages Alemannisch Български Dansk Deutsch Esperanto Français Galego 한국어 Nederlands Polski Română Русский Simple English Српски / Srpski Suomi Svenska 中文   This page was last modified on 17 September 2008, at 17:40. All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (See Copyrights for details.) Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a U.S. registered 501(c)(3) tax-deductible nonprofit charity. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers if (window.runOnloadHook) runOnloadHook(); |
|
