Last Names Meaning Origin and History (Page 1 of 2)
Origins and Meaning of Names
This article categorizes different naming traditions and customs.
It also describes origins and meanings of surnames from around the world.
It should help both novice and seasoned genealogy researchers.
Have you ever had the experience where your name was misspelled - perhaps on an account or in a letter? What are the typical misspellings or pronunciation errors associated with your name? It strikes one very personally because name is your possession and identification, and it tells the world who you are.
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Historically, names have served as a fingerprint of life, perhaps a basic clue to one's personality. Knowledge of naming practices in
our ancestral country of origin can help us trace our respective families
back to a village or a place, tell us their occupation, or it can give
us an idea about what our ancestors looked like. The intriguing story
of surnames dates back thousands of years. How and where they began,
what their original meanings were, and their various spellings, is called
the study of onomastics.
The first known people to acquire surnames were the Chinese. Legends
suggest that the Emperor Fushi decreed the use of surnames, or family
names, about 2852 BC. The Chinese customarily have three names. The
surname is placed first and comes from one of the 438 words in the sacred
Chinese poem Po-Chia-Hsing. The family name is followed by a
generation name, taken from a poem of 30 characters adopted by each
family. The given name is then placed last.
In early times, the Romans had only one name. However, they later changed
to using three names. The given name stood first and was called a "praenomen."
This was followed by the "nomen" which designates the gens, or clan.
The last name designates the family and is known as the "cognomen,"
Some Romans added a fourth name, the "agnomen," to commemorate an illustrious
action, or remarkable event. As the Roman Empire began to decline, family
names became confused and single names once again became customary.
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During the early Middle Ages, people were referred to by a single given
name. But gradually the custom of adding another name as a way to distinguish
individuals gained popularity. Certain distinct traits became commonly
used as a part of this practice. For instance, the place of birth: St.
Francis of Assisi; a descriptive characteristic: Lambert Le Tort, an
Old French poet whose name means "Lambert the Nisted;" the person's
occupation: Piers, Plowman; or the use of the father's name: Leif Ericsson.
By the 12th century, the use of a second name had become so widespread
that, in some places, it was considered vulgar not to have one. However,
even though this custom was the source of all surnames used today, the
second names used in the early Middle Ages did not apply to families,
nor were they hereditary.
Whether these second names evolved into fixed, hereditary surnames
is difficult to pinpoint with any accuracy since the practice advanced
slowly over a period of several hundreds of years. Many fixed surnames
existed alongside the more temporary bynames and descriptive terms used
by the people as second names.
The modern hereditary use of surnames is a practice that originated
among the Venetian aristocracy in Italy about the 10th or 11th centuries.
Crusaders returning from the Holy Land took note of this custom and
soon spread its use throughout Europe. France, the British isles, and
then Germany and Spain began applying the practice as the need to distinguish
individuals became more important. By the 1370's the word "Surname"
was found in documents, and had come to acquire some emotive and dynastic
significance. Men sometimes sought to keep their surname alive by encouraging
a collateral to adopt it when they had no direct descendants of their
own in the male line, Although we can see that the handing on of a surname
has become a matter of pride, we can only guess as to the reasons for
adopting hereditary surnames in the first place.
Government became more and more a matter of written record. As the
activities of government, particularly in the levying of taxation and
the exaction of military service, touched an ever widening range of
the population, perhaps it became necessary to identify individuals
accurately. in some of the larger urban communities especially, personal
names were no longer sufficient to distinguish people for social as
well as administrative purposes. in the countryside, manorial administration,
with its stress on hereditary succession to land, needed some means
of keeping track of families and not just of individuals. We can be
certain that by about 1450 at the latest, most people of whatever social
rank had a fixed, hereditary surname. This surname identified the family,
provided a link with the family's past, and would preserve its identity
in the future. It is not surprising that the preservation of surnames
became a matter of family pride. It was a cause for much regret if a
man had no male descendants to whom he could pass on the surname he
himself had inherited and had home with pride.
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African
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Belgian last names
Chinese last
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Czech last
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Danish last
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Dutch last
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French
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German
last names
Greek
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Hebrew
last names
Beginning in the 15th and 16th centuries, family
names gained in popularity in Poland and Russia. The Scandinavian countries,
bound by their custom of using the father's name as a second name, didn't
begin using family surnames until the 19th century, Turkey
waited until 1933, when the government forced the practice on its people.
In nearly every case, surnames were first used by the nobility and
wealthy landowners, and the practice then trickled down to the merchants
and commoners. The first permanent names were those of barons and landowners
who derived their names from the manors and fiefs. These names became
fixed through the hereditary nature of their lands. For the members
of the working and middle classes seeking status, the practices of the
nobility were imitated, leading to the widespread use of surnames.
It would be a difficult task to work out a simple classification of
family names due to spelling and pronunciation changes over the years.
Many old words had different meanings, or are now obsolete. Many family
names were dependent on the competency and discretion of the writer.
The same name can sometimes be spelled in different ways even in the
same document.
Family names have come down to us in various ways. They may have grown
out of a person's surroundings or job, or the name of an ancestor. Most
surnames evolved from four general sources:
Occupation
The local house builder, food preparer, grain grinder and suit maker,
would be named: John Carpenter, John Cook, John Miller and John Taylor.
The person who made barrels was called cooper. The blacksmith was called
Smith. Every village had its share of Smiths, Carpenters and Millers.
The millers in one town weren't necessarily related to the Millers in
the next town.
Location
The John who lived over the hill became known as John Overhill; the
one who dwelled near a stream might be dubbed John Brook, Many locational
surnames originated as place names. You can tell that a surname is a
locational place name if it ends with one of the regular place name
elements, such as -hill, -ford, -wood, -brook, -well, and so on. Less
easily recognized locational surnames end with -ton, -ham, -wick, -stead
meaning a farm, or small settlement. Other common locational endings
are -don, (a hill), -bury (a fortification) or -leigh, or -ley (a clearing).
Patronymic (father's name)
Many of these surnames can be recognized by the ten-nination son, such
as Williamson, Jackson, etc. Some endings used by other countries to
indicate "son" are: Armenians - ian; Danes and Norwegians - sen; Finns
- nen; Greeks - poulos; Spaniards - ez; and Poles - wiecz, Prefixes
denoting "son" are the Welsh - Ap, the Scots and Irish - Mac, and the
Normans - Fitz. So, John the son of Randolph became John fitz-Randolph
because "fitz" means son of." In Wales, David the son of John tacked
ap" in front of his father's name, and David ap John was soon being
called David Upjohn. in Scotland, Gilleain's descendants were known
as MacGilleain and later shortened to Madeab, McClean, McLane, and all
the other versions.
Characteristic
An unusually small person might be labeled Small, Short, Little or
Lyfle, A large man might be named Longfellow, Large, Lang or Long. Many
persons having characteristics of a certain animal would be given the
animal's name. Examples: a sly person might be named Fox; a good swimmer,
Fish; a quiet man, Dove; etc.
Many historians believe that surnames derived from places (locational)
were the first to become hereditary. Surnames evolving from nicknames
or descriptive traits (characteristic) are also of early origin. Surnames
taken from occupations came later, and those of patronymic origin were
the last to become hereditary. Even though patronymic names have been
in use a long time, they would change with every generation: William's
son John would be known as John Williamson, while his son William would
be William Johnson. Surnames that are the most fun, the most surprising
and sometimes even embarrassing, are the characteristic names. one word
of caution, though: do not be distressed if your name originally meant
something you consider uncomplimentary.
Remember that definition may have applied to someone who lived centuries
ago. There are obvious characteristic surnames, including Longfellow,
Redd (one with red hair), and White (white complexion or hair), and
their Italian and German counterparts, Bianco and Weiss. You cannot
always take at face value what names seem to mean, because changes in
word meanings over the centuries. Hence the English name Stout, which
brings to mind a rather fat fellow, is actually indicative of an early
ancestor who was easily irritated, a noisy fellow. There are some names
that leave us with an immediate picture of a person with a most distinctive
physical characteristic: Stradling, an English name meaning one with
bowed legs; the French Beaudry, -one with good bearing, beautiful; and
the Irish Balfe - one who stammered and stuttered. Many surnames have
more than one origin. For instance, the English surname "Bell" may designate
one who lived or worked at the sign of the bell, or it may refer to
a bell-ringer, or bellmaker. It may from the Old French word "bell"
or pet form of Isabel.
Irish
last names
Italian
last names
Japanese
last names
Polish
last names
Portuguese
last names
Russian
last names
Scottish
last names
Spanish
last names
Swedish
and Norwegian last names
Swiss
last names
Welsh
last names
Spelling Variations of the Family Names
When you begin to do more extensive research on your surname you may
have difficulty finding it with the exact spelling which you use today.
it, in fact may very well have been spelled differently hundreds of
years ago, or you may even know of someone in your family's past who
actually changed his name. The more research you do, the more likely
you'll find several different spellings. Language changes, carelessness
and a high degree of illiteracy (sometimes the man himself did not know
how to spell his own name) compounded the number of ways a name might
be spelled. Often the town clerk spelled the name the way it sounded
to him.
When you begin your own intensive research in to your genealogy you
will very likely need to consult many sources outside your immediate
family. One type of source which you may find especially useful is fists
of name - forms, their meaning and variant spellings. Such fists, along
with more extensive onomastic dictionaries, now exist for many nationalities
and name-groups. You will need to be alert to a wide range of spelling
variations. Many names became altered in moving from one language to
another. Thus, the German name Metzger (occupational in origin) became
Butcher in English. Often, names were changed for political or social
reasons, to blur or obscure ancestral associations which at a given
time a family may have considered a liability. Some spellings may have
been altered for the sake of simplification, thus losing their relational,
occupational or locational prefixes and suffixes. For example, the surname
"Rosenthal" - a valley where roses grow - may have been shortened to
Rosen or Rose. With the exception of some place-names which still survive,
most ancient Gaelic names in Ireland, Scotland, and Wales have largely
disappeared under their Anglicized forms: "Mac an Bhreitheamhnaigh,"
meaning son of a judge, may have become Briany or Brien, or Abraham
(pronounced eh' brum), or even judge by translation. The Gaelic "ua,"
meaning grandson of, changed first to 0, then to 0', and was finally
even dropped by some families. Many of these dropped familial prefixes
have since been restored, but is likely that some accidental changes
have entered the transactions.
We have mentioned the most common sources from which surnames are derived.
We must now examine some of the idiosyncracies for name giving for the
country of origin. Different cultures had different ways of choosing
names for their offspring. Below are various nationalities and ethnic
groups and some of the ways in which their names are derived.
The Origins of Surnames Around the World
Although your last name offers you the most substantial clues to your
family history, first and middle names can also be valuable in tracing
your family tree. We generally think of names with three parts: first,
middle and last. First names are called "given" or "Christian" names,
because early Christians changed their pagan first names to Christian
names at baptism.
Most first names used in the Western World today originate from five
languages: Hebrew, Teutonic (which included Germanic), Greek, Latin
and Celtic (which includes Irish, Welsh and Scottish).
It's fascinating to learn how easily first names fall into obvious
categories. Hebrew contributed biblical names, and about one-half of
the English-speaking population have first names from the New Testament
such as Elizabeth, Mary, John and Joseph. The Teutonic tongues gave
us names linked with warlike characteristics, such as Charles (to become
adult), or Ethel (noble). The Greek, Latin and Celtic languages also
gave us names for personal characteristics and abstract qualities, For
example, the Greek name Andrew means "manly," the Greek Dorothy is "gift
of God," the Latin Victor means "victory in battle," and the Latin Laura
translates to "the air." Names of Celtic origin are almost poetic, such
as Kevin meaning "gentle and beloved" and Morgan meaning "sea dweller."
While there is a wealth of first names available, the actual selection
process has been somewhat limited. it is necessary to remember that
in 1545 the Catholic Church made the use of a saint's name mandatory
for baptism, so for centuries first names have been confined to the
John - and -Mary tradition. in fact, in all western countries during
the Middle Ages, there were only about twenty common names for infant
boys and girls. And John and Mary were most frequently used. In the
1600's the Protestants rejected anything associated with Catholicism,
so in came names from the Old Testament, such as Elijah, Priscilla and
Joshua.
Middle names weren't used until the 15th century when a second "first"
name was used as a status symbol by German nobility. Many years passed
before this practice became widespread, and in the United States, it
did not become popular until after the Revolutionary War, when the fashion
was to use the mother's maiden name.
Perhaps you have or will come across an ancestor's name with what appears
to be a fide. For example, "Esquire" following a name meant someone
much respected, one step away from a knight. "Gentleman" was one step
down from an Esquire. The title "Goodman" (or a woman was called "Goody"
or "Goodwife") meant the person was head of a household. Many other
terms from our past have changed meaning. Esquire and Gentleman were
expanded through the years to include persons with special social standing
in the community - doctors, clergymen, lawyers. Also "Senior" and "Junior"
placed immediately following a name did not necessarily imply a father
- and - son relationship. They could have been an uncle and nephew who
bore the same name and lived near each other. The term cousin was widely
used to mean "an extended family," not legally just the child of an
aunt or uncle.
Belgian
Belgian surnames are either of French or Dutch Origin. In the North,
surnames tend to be of a Dutch origin and are similar in nature to those
found in the Netherlands. The remainder of the country falls under French
influence, particulary the Walloon dialect, and surnames from these
areas resemble those of the French.
Chinese
Although China has over one billion people, there are approximately
1000 surnames, and only 60 of these are common. Most Chinese surnames
are only one syllable and are characteristic of descriptive in origin.
The most common Chinese names are Wang (yellow, Wong (field or wide
water), Chan (old) and Chew (mountain). Since almost all Chinese names
are one syllable and easy to pronounce, and because of strong Chinese
family and ancestral ties, few names have been changed. The Chinese
still place their surnames first, although this practice is no longer
followed by the Chinese people living in Western countries.
Czech
Czech surnames are related to Polish surnames, but they tend to be
shorter and easier to pronounce, since they contain fewer consonants.
It is common to find a Czech surname derived from a nickname and diminutive
forms are also widespread. Many Czechs have German or "Germanicized"
names. Some interesting Czech surnames include the following: Hovorka
(one who was overly talkative), Kostal (a dweller in a field where cabbages
have been cut) and Metnick (one who ground grain, a miller).
Danish
The vast majority of Danish names are patronymic in origin and end
in -sen. Prior to the late 1860's, these surnames were not hereditary,
but changed with each generation. The son of Jorgen Petersen would be
known by the surname Jorgensen. In 1904 the Danish Government began
to encourage the use of surnames other than the traditional -sen names,
and many people then added a place or occupational name to their -sen
name by hyphenating the two. Other Danish surnames include: Henricksen
(the son of Henry; home rule), Krogh (a worker in an inn, or dweller
in a corner), Pedersen (the son of Peter; a rock) and Jorgenson (the
son of George; farin er).
Dutch
The use of hereditary family surnames began in the 13th and 14th centuries
but did not spread to the Low Countries until the middle of the 17th
century. Many Dutch names are recognized by the prefixes van, van der,
van den, and ver which mean "from" or "from the." The Dutch van is not
like the German von which designates nobility. Characteristic nicknames
were also used as surnames by the Dutch, and, like many other cultures,
patronymics which changed with each generation were long a fixture in
the Dutch name system. The following surnames are of Dutch origin: Drukker
(one who prints or works as a pressman), Zylstra (a dweller near a lock,
or drainage sluice), Groen (the young, inexperienced, vigorous person)
and Hartig (a strong, robust man).
English
By the end of the 13th century, Englishmen and English personal names
were to be found not just in England but in many parts of Scotland,
Wales and Ireland as well. These personal names were derived from a
variety of sources. Some were biblical in origin, or were the names
of saints and martyrs of the early Christian Church. Many were Norman,
and a handful were Anglo-Saxon survivals or revivals. Also, saints who
were popular in particular regions, such as Cuthbert in the north, might
influence the choice of personal names in those regions. The following
surnames are of English origin and their usage spread throughout Great
Britain: Palmer (a palm-bearing pilgrim returned from the holy land),
Weedman (one in charge of a heathen temple), Yale (a dweller at a corner,
nook, or secret place) and Schoolcraft (a dweller in a hut in a small
field or enclosure).
Edited by Lionel E. Mayrand from an orginal article
contained in the Mayrand Archives.
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