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Buddhist Meditation
Buddhist Meditation
by Francis Story
(The Anagarika Sugatananda)
Buddhist Publication Society
Bodhi Leaves BL 15
Copyright © 1986 Buddhist Publication Society
For free distribution only.
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Buddhist Publication Society
P.O. Box 61
54, Sangharaja Mawatha
Kandy, Sri Lanka
This electronic edition was transcribed from the print edition in 1995
by Myra Fox under the auspices of the DharmaNet Dharma Book Transcription
Project, with the kind permission of the Buddhist Publication Society.
The mental exercise known as meditation is found in all religious systems.
Prayer is a form of discursive meditation, and in Hinduism the reciting
of slokas and mantras is employed to tranquilize the mind to a state of
receptivity. In most of these systems the goal is identified with the particular
psychic results that ensue, sometimes very quickly; and the visions that
come in the semi-trance state, or the sounds that are heard, are considered
to be the end-result of the exercise. This is not the case in the forms
of meditation practiced in Buddhism.
There is still comparatively little known about the mind, its functions
and its powers, and it is difficult for most people to distinguish between
self-hypnosis, the development of mediumistic states, and the real process
of mental clarification and direct perception which is the object of Buddhist
mental concentration. The fact that mystics of every religion have induced
on themselves states wherein they see visions and hear voices that are
in accordance with their own religious beliefs indicates that their meditation
has resulted only in bringing to the surface of the mind and objectifying
the concepts already embedded in the deepest strata of their subconscious
minds. The Christian sees and converses with the saints of whom he already
knows; the Hindu visualizes the gods of the Hindu pantheon, and so on.
When Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, the Bengali mystic, began to turn his
thoughts towards Christianity, he saw visions of Jesus in his meditations,
in place of his former eidetic images of the Hindu Avatars.
The practiced hypnotic subject becomes more and more readily able to
surrender himself to the suggestions made to him by the hypnotiser, and
anyone who has studied this subject is bound to see a connection between
the mental state of compliance he has reached and the facility with which
the mystic can induce whatever kind of experiences he wills himself to
undergo. There is still another possibility latent in the practice of meditation;
the development of mediumistic faculties by which the subject can actually
see and hear beings on different planes of existence, the Devalokas and
the realm of the unhappy ghosts, for example. These worlds being nearest
to our own are the more readily accessible, and this is the true explanation
of the psychic phenomena of Western Spiritualism.
The object of Buddhist meditation, however, is none of these things.
They arise as side-products, but not only are they not its goal, but they
are hindrances which have to be overcome. The Christian who has seen Jesus,
or the Hindu who has conversed with Bhagavan Krishna may be quite satisfied
that he has fulfilled the purpose of his religious life, but the Buddhist
who sees a vision of the Buddha knows by that very fact that he has only
succeeded in objectifying a concept in his own mind, for the Buddha after
his Parinibbana is, in his own words, no longer visible to gods or men.
There is an essential difference, then, between Buddhist meditation
and concentration and that practiced in other systems. The Buddhist embarking
on a course of meditation does well to recognize this difference and to
establish in his own conscious mind a clear idea of what it is he is trying
to do.
The root-cause of rebirth and suffering is avijja conjoined with
and reacting upon tanha. These two causes form a vicious circle;
on the one hand, concepts, the result of ignorance, and on the other hand,
desire arising from concepts. The world of phenomena has no meaning beyond
the meaning given to it by our own interpretation.
When that interpretation is conditioned by avijja, we are subject
to the state known as vipallasa, or hallucination. Sañña-vipallasa,
hallucination of perception; citta-vipallasa, hallucination of consciousness,
and ditthi-vipallasa, hallucination of views, cause us to regard
that which is impermanent (anicca) as permanent, that which is painful
(dukkha)
as a source of pleasure, and that which is unreal (anatta), or literally
without any self existence, as being a real, self-existing entity. Consequently,
we place a false interpretation on all the sensory experiences we gain
through the six channels of cognition, that is, the eye, ear, nose, tongue,
sense of touch and mind cakkhu, sota, ghana, jivha, kaya and mano
(ayatana). Physics, by showing that the realm of phenomena we know
through these channels of cognition does not really correspond to the physical
world known to science, has confirmed this Buddhist truth. We are deluded
by our own senses. Pursuing what we imagine to be desirable, an object
of pleasure, we are in reality only following a shadow, trying to grasp
a mirage. It is anicca, dukkha, anatta -- impermanent, associated
with suffering, an insubstantial. Being so, it can only be the cause of
impermanence, suffering and insubstantiality, since like begets like; and
we ourselves, who chase the illusion, are also impermanent, subject to
suffering and without any persistent ego-principle. It is a case of a shadow
pursuing a shadow.
The purpose of Buddhist meditation, therefore, is to gain more than
an intellectual understanding of this truth, to liberate ourselves from
the delusion and thereby put an end to both ignorance and craving. If the
meditation does not produce results tending to this consummation -- results
which are observable in the character and the whole attitude to life --
it is clear that there is something wrong either with the system or with
the method of employing it. It is not enough to see lights, to have visions
or to experience ecstasy. These phenomena are too common to be impressive
to the Buddhist who really understands the purpose of Buddhist meditation.
There are actual dangers in them which are apparent to one who is also
a student of psychopathology.
In the Buddha's great discourse on the practice of mindfulness, the
Maha-Satipatthana Sutta, both the object and the means of attaining it
are clearly set forth. Attentiveness to the movements of the body, to the
ever-changing states of the mind, is to be cultivated in order that their
real nature should be known. Instead of identifying these physical and
mental phenomena with the false concept of "self," we are to see them as
they really are: movements of a physical body, an aggregate of the four
elements, (mahabhutas) subject to physical laws of causality on
the one hand, and on the other, a flux of successive phases of consciousness
arising and passing away in response to external stimuli. They are to be
viewed objectively, as though they were processes not associated with ourselves
but belonging to another order of phenomena.
From what can selfishness and egotism proceed if not from the concept
of "self" (sakkayaditthi)? If the practice of any form of meditation
leaves selfishness or egotism unabated, it has not been successful. A tree
is judged by its fruits and a man by his actions; there is no other criterion.
Particularly is this true in Buddhist psychology, because the man is
his actions. In the truest sense they, or the continuity of kamma and vipaka
which they represent, are the only claim he can make to any persistent
identity, not only through the different phases of this life but also from
one life to another. Attentiveness with regard to body and mind serves
to break down the illusion of self; and not only that, it also cuts off
craving and attachment to external objects, so that ultimately there is
neither the "self" that craves nor any object of craving. It is a long
and arduous discipline, and one that can only be undertaken in retirement
from the world and its cares.
Yet even a temporary retirement, a temporary course of this discipline,
can bear good results in that it establishes an attitude of mind which
can be applied to some degree in the ordinary situations of life. Detachment,
objectivity, is an invaluable aid to clear thinking; it enables a man to
sum up a given situation without bias, personal or otherwise, and to act
in that situation with courage and discretion. Another gift it bestows
is that of concentration -- the ability to focus the mind and keep it steadily
fixed on a single point (ekaggata, or one-pointedness), and this
is the great secret of success in any undertaking. The mind is hard to
tame; it roams here and there restlessly as the wind, or like an untamed
horse, but when it is fully under control, it is the most powerful instrument
in the whole universe. He who has mastered his own mind is indeed master
of the Three Worlds.
In the first place he is without fear. Fear arises because we associate
mind and body (nama-rupa) with "self"; consequently any harm to
either is considered to be harm done to oneself. But he who has broken
down this illusion by realizing that the five khandha process is
merely the manifestation of cause and effect, does not fear death or misfortune.
He remains equable alike in success and failure, unaffected by praise or
blame. The only thing he fears is demeritorious action, because he knows
that no thing or person in the world can harm him except himself, and as
his detachment increases, he becomes less and less liable to demeritorious
deeds. Unwholesome action comes of an unwholesome mind, and as the mind
becomes purified, healed of its disorders, bad kamma ceases to accumulate.
He comes to have a horror of wrong action and to take greater and greater
delight in those deeds that are rooted in alobha, adosa,
and amoha -- generosity, benevolence and wisdom.
Anapana Sati
One of the most universally-applicable methods of cultivating mental
concentration is anapanasati, attentiveness on the in-going and
out-going breath. This, unlike the Yogic systems, does not call for any
interference with the normal breathing, the breath being merely used as
a point on which to fix the attention, at the tip of the nostrils. The
attention must not wander, even to follow the breath, but must be kept
rigidly on the selected spot. In the initial stages it is advisable to
mark the respiration by counting, but as soon as it is possible to keep
the mind fixed without this artificial aid, it should be discontinued and
only used when it is necessary to recall the attention.
As the state of mental quiescence (samatha) is approached, the
breath appears to become fainter and fainter, until it is hardly discernible.
It is at this stage that certain psychic phenomena appear, which may at
first be disconcerting. A stage is reached when the actual bodily dukkha,
the sensation of arising and passing away of the physical elements in the
body, is felt. This is experienced as a disturbance, but it must be remembered
that it is an agitation that is always present in the body but we are unaware
of it until the mind becomes stabilized. It is the first direct experience
of the dukkha (suffering) which is inherent in all phenomena --
the realization within oneself of the first of the Four Noble Truths, Dukkha
Ariya Sacca. When that is passed there follows the sensation of piti,
rapturous joy associated with the physical body. The teacher of vipassana,
however, is careful never to describe to his pupil beforehand what he is
likely to experience, for if he does so, there is a strong possibility
that the power of suggestion will produce a false reaction, particularly
in those cases where the pupil is very suggestible and greatly under the
influence of the teacher.
Devices in Meditation
In kammattana, it is permissible to use certain devices, such
as the earth or colour kasina, as focal points for the attention.
A candle flame, a hole in the wall, or some metal object can also be used,
and the method of using them is found in the Pali texts and the Visuddhi-magga.
In the texts themselves it is to be noted that the Buddha gave objects
of meditation to disciples in accordance with their individual characteristics,
and his unerring knowledge of the right technique for each came from his
insight into their previous births. Similarly with recursive meditation,
a subject would be given which was easily comprehensible to the pupil,
or which served to counteract some strong, unwholesome tendency in his
nature. Thus, to one attracted by sensual indulgence, the Buddha would
recommend meditation on the impurity of the body, or the "cemetery meditation."
Here the object is to counterbalance attraction by repulsion, but it is
only a "skillful means" to reach the final state, in which attraction and
repulsion both cease to exist. In the Arahant there is neither liking nor
disliking: he regards all things with perfect equanimity, as did Thera
Maha Moggallana when he accepted a handful of rice from a leper.
Beads
The use of the rosary in Buddhism is often misunderstood. If it is
used for the mechanical repetition of a set formula, the repeating of so
many phrases as an act of piety, as in other religions, its value is negligible.
When it is used as means of holding the attention and purifying the mind,
however, it can be a great help. One of the best ways of employing it,
because it calls for undivided attention, is to repeat the Pali formula
of the qualities of Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha, beginning "Iti'pi so
Bhagava -- " with the first bead, starting again with the second and
continuing to the next quality: "Iti'pi so Bhagava, Arahan -- "
and so on until with the last bead the entire formula is repeated from
beginning to end. This cannot be carried out successfully unless the mind
is entirely concentrated on what is being done. At the same time the recalling
of the noble qualities of Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha lifts the mind to a
lofty plane, since the words carry with them a meaning the impresses itself
on the pattern of the thought-moments as they arise and pass away. The
value of this in terms of Abhidhamma psychology lies in the wholesome nature
of the cittakkhana, or "consciousness-moment" in its uppada
(arising), thiti (static) and bhanga (disappearing) phases.
Each of these wholesome cittakkhana contributes to the improvement
of the sankhara; or aggregate of tendencies; in other words, it
directs the subsequent thought-moments into a higher realm and tends to
establish the character on that level.
Samatha Bhavana
Samatha bhavana, the development of mental tranquillity with
concentration, is accompanied by three benefits; it gives happiness in
the present life, a favorable rebirth, and the freedom from mental defilements
which is a prerequisite for attainment of insight. In samatha the
mind becomes like a still, clear pool completely free from disturbance
and agitation, and ready to mirror on its surface the nature of things
as they really are, the aspect of them which is hidden from ordinary knowledge
by the restlessness of craving. It is the peace and fulfillment which is
depicted on the features of the Buddha, investing his images with a significance
that impresses even those who have no knowledge of what it means. Such
an image of the Buddha can itself be a very suitable object of meditation,
and is, in fact, the one that most Buddhists instinctively use. The very
sight of the tranquil image can calm and pacify a mind distraught with
worldly hopes and fears. It is the certain and visible assurance of Nibbana.
Vipassana Bhavana
Vipassana bhavana is realization of the three signs of being,
anicca,
dukkha, and anatta, by direct insight. These three characteristics,
impermanence, suffering and non-self, can be grasped intellectually, as
scientific and philosophical truth, but this is not in itself sufficient
to rid the mind of egoism and craving. The final objective lies on a higher
level of awareness, the direct "intuitional" plane, where it is actually
experienced as psychological fact. Until this personal confirmation is
obtained, the sphere of sense perception (ayatana) and sensory-responses
remain stronger than the intellectual conviction; the two function side
by side on different levels of consciousness, but it is usually the sphere
dominated by avijja which continues to determine the course of life
by volitional action. The philosopher who fails to live according to his
philosophy is the most familiar example of this incompatibility between
theory and practice. When the direct perception is obtained, however, what
was at its highest intellectual level still merely a theory becomes actual
knowledge, in precisely the same way that we "know" when we are hot or
cold hungry or thirsty. The mind that has attained it is established in
the Dhamma, and pañña, wisdom, has taken the place
of delusion.
Discursive meditation, such as that practiced in Christian devotion,
is entirely on the mental level, and can be undertaken by anyone at any
time. It calls for no special preparation or conditions. For the more advanced
exercises of samatha and vipassana, however, the strictest
observance of sila, the basic moral rules, becomes necessary. These
techniques are best followed in seclusion, away from the impurities of
worldly life and under the guidance of an accomplished master. Many people
have done themselves psychic harm by embarking on them without due care
in this respect. It is not advisable for anyone to experiment on his own;
those who are unable to place themselves under a trustworthy teacher will
do best to confine themselves to discursive meditation. It cannot take
them to enlightenment but will benefit them morally and prepare them for
the next stage.
The Practice of Metta Bhavana
Metta bhavana is the most universally beneficial form of discursive
meditation, and can be practiced in any conditions. Thoughts of universal,
undiscriminating benevolence, like radio waves reaching out in all directions,
sublimate the creative energy of the mind. With steady perseverance in
metta
bhavana a point can be reached at which it becomes impossible even
to harbor a thought of ill-will. True peace can only come to the world
through minds that are at peace, If people everywhere in the world could
be persuaded to devote half an hour daily to the practice of metta bhavana,
we should see more real advance towards world peace and security than international
agreements will ever bring us. It would be a good thing if, in this new
era of the Buddha Sasana, people of all creeds could be invited to take
part in a world-wide movement for the practice of metta bhavana
and pledge themselves to live in accordance with the highest tenets of
their own religion, whatever it may be. In so doing they would be paying
homage to the Supreme Buddha and to their own particular religious teacher
as well, for on this level all the great religions of the world unite.
If there is a common denominator to be found among them, it is surely here,
in the teaching of universal loving-kindness which transcends doctrinal
differences and draws all being together by the power of a timeless and
all-embracing truth.
The classic formulation of metta as an attitude of mind to be
developed by meditation is found in the Karaniya Metta Sutta (Sutta
Nipata, Khuddaka-patha) [See appendix]. It is recommended that this sutta
be recited before beginning meditation, and again at its close, a practice
which is invariably followed in the Buddhist countries. The verses of the
sutta embody the highest concept to which the thought of loving-kindness
can reach, and it serves both as a means of self-protection against unwholesome
mental states and as a subject of contemplation (kammatthana).
It is taught in Buddhism that the cultivation of benevolence must begin
with oneself. There is a profound psychological truth in this, for no one
who hates or despises himself consciously or unconsciously can feel true
loving-kindness for others. To each of us the self is the nearest object;
if one's attitude towards oneself is not a wholesome one, the spring of
love is poisoned at its source. This does not mean that we should build
up an idealized picture of ourselves as an object of admiration, but that,
while being fully aware of our faults and deficiencies, we should not condemn
but resolve to improve ourselves and cherish confidence in our ability
to do so.
Metta bhavana, therefore, begins with the thought: "May I be
free from enmity; may I be free from ill-will; may I be rid of suffering;
may I be happy."
This thought having been developed, the next stage is to apply it in
exactly the same form and to the same degree, to someone for whom one has
naturally a feeling of friendship.
In so doing, two points must be observed: the object should be a living
person, and should not be one of the opposite sex. The second prohibition
is to guard against the feeling of metta turning into its "near
enemy," sensuality. Those whose sensual leanings have a different orientation
must vary the rule to suit their own needs.
When the thought of metta has been developed towards a friend,
the next object should be someone towards whom one has no marked feelings
of like or dislike. Lastly, the though of metta is to be turned
towards someone who is hostile. It is here that difficulties arise. They
are to be expected, and the meditator must be prepared to meet and wrestle
with them. To this end, several techniques are described in the Visuddhimagga
and elsewhere. The first is to think of the hostile personality in terms
of anatta -- impersonality. The meditator is advised to analyze
the hostile personality into its impersonal components -- the body, the
feelings, the perceptions, the volitional formations and the consciousness.
The body, to begin with, consists of purely material items: hair of the
head, hair of the body, skin, nails, teeth and so on. There can be no basis
for enmity against these. The feelings, perceptions, volitional formations
and consciousness are all transitory phenomena, interdependent, conditioned
and bound up with suffering. They are anicca, dukkha and
anatta,
impermanent, fraught with suffering and void of selfhood. There is no more
individual personality in them than there is in the physical body itself.
So towards them, likewise, there can be no real ground for enmity.
If this approach should prove to be not altogether effective, there
are others in which emotionally counteractive states of mind are brought
into play, as for example regarding the hostile person with compassion.
The meditator should reflect: "As he (or she) is, so am I. As I am, so
is he. We are both bound to the inexorable Wheel of Life by ignorance and
craving. Both of us are subject to the law of cause and effect, and whatever
evil we do, for that we must suffer. Why then should I blame or call anyone
my enemy? Rather should I purify my mind and wish that he may do the same,
so that both of us may be freed from suffering."
If this thought is dwelt upon and fully comprehended, feelings of hostility
will be cast out. When the thought of loving-kindness is exactly the same,
in quality and degree, for all these four objects -- oneself, one's friend,
the person toward whom one is neutral, and the enemy -- the meditation
has been successful.
The next stage is to widen and extend it. This process is a threefold
one: suffusing metta without limitation, suffusing it with limitation,
and suffusing it in all of the ten directions, east, west, north, south,
the intermediate points, above and below.
In suffusing metta without limitation (anodhiso-pharana),
the meditator thinks of the objects of loving-kindness under five heads:
all sentient beings; all things that have life; all beings that have come
into existence; all that have personality; all that have assumed individual
being. For each of these groups separately he formulates the thought: "May
they be free from enmity; may they be free from enmity; may they be free
from ill will; may they be rid of suffering; may they be happy. For each
object he specifies the particular group which he is suffusing with metta:
"May all sentient beings be free from enmity, etc... May all things that
have life be free from enmity, etc." This meditation embraces all without
particular reference to locality, and so is called "suffusing without limitation."
In suffusing metta with limitation (odhiso-pharana), there
are seven groups which form the objects of the meditation. They are: all
females; all males; all Noble Ones (those who have attained any one of
the states of Sainthood); all imperfect ones; all Devas; all human beings;
all beings in states of woe. Each of the groups should be meditated upon
as described above: "May all females be free from enmity, etc." This method
is called "suffusing metta with limitation" because it defines the
groups according to their nature and condition.
Suffusing with metta all beings in the ten directions is carried
out in the same way. Directing his mind towards the east, the meditator
concentrates on the thought: "May all beings in the east be free from enmity;
may they be free from ill will; may they be rid of suffering; may they
be happy!" And so with the beings in the west, the north, the south, the
north-east, south-west, north-west, south-east, above and below.
Lastly, each of the twelve groups belonging to the unlimited and limited
suffusions of metta can be dealt with separately for each of the
ten directions, using the appropriate formulas.
It is taught that each of these twenty-two modes of practicing metta
bhavana is capable of being developed up to the stage of a appana-samadhi,
that is, the concentration which leads to jhana, or mental absorption.
For this reason it is described as the method for attaining release of
the mind through metta (metta cetovimutti). It is the first
of the Four Brahma Viharas, the sublime states of which the Karaniya Metta
Sutta: "Brahmam etam viharam idhamahu" -- "Here is declared the
Highest Life."
Metta, karuna, mudita, upekkha: [see Nyanaponika Thera, The
Four Sublime States, Wheel 6.] loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic
joy and detachment, these four states of mind represent the highest levels
of mundane consciousness. One who has attained to them and dwells in them
is impervious to the ills of life. Like a god he moves and acts in undisturbed
serenity, armored against the blows of fate and the uncertainty of worldly
conditions. And the first of them to be cultivated is metta, because
it is through boundless love that the mind gains its first taste of liberation.
Appendix
Lovingkindness as a Contemplation
Metta Sutta
From the Sutta Nipata, verses 143-52 (Spoken by the Buddha)
What should be done by one skillful in good
So as to gain the State of Peace is this:
Let him be able, and upright, and straight.
Easy to speak to, gentle, and not proud,
Contented, too, supported easily.
With few tasks, and living very lightly,
His faculties serene, prudent, and modest,
Unswayed by the emotions of the clans;
And let him never do the slightest thing
That other wise men might hold blamable.
(And let him think:) "In safety and in bliss
May creatures all be of a blissful heart.
Whatever breathing beings there may be,
No matter whether they are frail or firm,
With none excepted, be they long or big
Or middle sized, or be they short or small
Or thick, as well as those seen or unseen,
Or whether they are dwelling far or near,
Existing or yet seeking to exist,
May creatures all be of a blissful heart.
Let no one work another one's undoing
Or even slight him at all anywhere;
And never let them wish each other ill
Through provocation or resentful thought."
And just as might a mother with her life
Protect the son that was her only child,
So let him then for every living thing
Maintain unbounded consciousness in being,
And let him too with love for all the world
Maintain unbounded consciousness in being
Above, below, and all round in between,
Untroubled, with no enemy or foe.
And while he stands or walks or while he sits
Or while he lies down, free from drowsiness,
Let him resolve upon this mindfulness
This is Divine Abiding here, they say.
But when he has no trafficking with views,
Is virtuous, and has perfected seeing,
And purges greed for sensual desires.
He surely comes no more to any womb.
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