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The Status ofWomen in IslamJamal A. Badawi provides a brief andauthentic exposition of the teachings of Islam regarding women.CONTENTSPREFACEINTRODUCTIONHISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES Women in Ancient CivilizationWOMEN IN ISLAM 1. The Spiritual Aspect 2. The Social Aspect (a) As a Child and Adolescent (b) As a Wife (c) As a Mother 3. The Economic Aspect 4. The political AspectCONCLUSIONBIBLIOGRAPHYPREFACEFamily, society and ultimately thewhole of mankind is treated by Islam on an ethical basis. Differentiation in sexis neither a credit nor a drawback for the sexes. Therefore, when we talk aboutstatus of woman in Islam it should not lead us to think that Islam has nospecific guidelines, limitations, responsibilities and obligations for men. Whatmakes one valuable and respectable in the eyes of Allah, the Creator of mankindand the universe, is neither one's prosperity, position, intelligence, physicalstrength nor beauty, but only one's Allah-consciousness and awareness (taqwa).However, since in the Western culture and in cultures influenced by it, thereexists a disparity between men and women there is more need for stating Islam'sposition on important issues in a clear way.Dr. Jamal Badawi's essay, TheStatus of Women in Islam, was originally published in our quarterly journal, Al-lttihad,Vol. 8, No. 2, Sha'ban 1391/Sept 1971. Since then it has been one of ourmost-demanded publications. We thank Br. Jamal for permitting us to reprint hisessay. We hope it will clarify many of the misconceptions.Anis Ahmad,Director Dept. of Education and TrainingMSA of U.S. and CanadaP.O. Box 38 Plainfield, IN 46168 USAJumada al Thani 1400 April 1980 I. INTRODUCTIONThe status of women in society isneither a new issue nor is it a fully settled one.The position of Islam on thisissue has been among the subjects presented to the Western reader with the leastobjectivity.This paper is intended to providea brief and authentic exposition of what Islam stands for in this regard. Theteachings of Islam are based essentially on the Qur'an (God's revelation) andHadeeth (elaboration by Prophet Muhammad).The Qur'an and the Hadeeth,properly and unbiasedly understood, provide the basic source of authenticationfor any position or view which is attributed to Islam.The paper starts with a briefsurvey of the status of women in the pre-Islamic era. It then focuses on thesemajor questions: What is the position of Islam regarding the status of woman insociety? How similar or different is that position from "the spirit of thetime," which was dominant when Islam was revealed? How would this comparewith the "rights" which were finally gained by woman in recentdecades? II. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVESOne major objective of this paperis to provide a fair evaluation of what Islam contributed (or failed tocontribute) toward the restoration of woman's dignity and rights. In order toachieve this objective, it may be useful to review briefly how women weretreated in general in previous civilizations and religions, especially thosewhich preceded Islam (Pre-610 C.E.). Part of the information provided here,however, describes the status of woman as late as the nineteenth century, morethan twelve centuries after Islam.Women in Ancient CivilizationDescribing the status of theIndian woman, Encyclopedia Britannica states: In India, subjection was a cardinal principle. Day and night must women be held by their protectors in a state of dependence says Manu. The rule of inheritance was agnatic, that is descent traced through males to the exclusion of females.In Hindu scriptures, thedescription of a good wife is as follows: "a woman whose mind, speech andbody are kept in subjection, acquires high renown in this world, and, in thenext, the same abode with her husband."In Athens, women were not betteroff than either the Indian or the Roman women."Athenian women were alwaysminors, subject to some male - to their father, to their brother, or to some oftheir male kin.Her consent in marriage was notgenerally thought to be necessary and "she was obliged to submit to thewishes of her parents, and receive from them her husband and her lord, eventhough he were stranger to her."A Roman wife was described by anhistorian as: "a babe, a minor, a ward, a person incapable of doing oracting anything according to her own individual taste, a person continuallyunder the tutelage and guardianship of her husband."In the Encyclopedia Britannica, wefind a summary of the legal status of women in the Roman civilization: In Roman Law a woman was even in historic times completely dependent. If married she and her property passed into the power of her husband . . . the wife was the purchased property of her husband, and like a slave acquired only for his benefit. A woman could not exercise any civil or public office . could not be a witness, surety, tutor, or curator; she could not adopt or be adopted, or make will or contract. Among the Scandinavian races women were: under perpetual tutelage, whether married or unmarried. As late as the Code of Christian V, at the end of the 17th Century, it was enacted that if a woman married without the consent of her tutor he might have, if he wished, administration and usufruct of her goods during her life. According to the English Common Law: ...all real property which a wife held at the time of a marriage became a possession of her husband. He was entitled to the rent from the land and to any profit which might be made from operating the estate during the joint life of the spouses. As time passed, the English courts devised means to forbid a husband's transferring real property without the consent of his wife, but he still retained the right to manage it and to receive the money which it produced. As to a wife's personal property, the husband's power was complete. He had the right to spend it as he saw fit.Only by the late nineteenthCentury did the situation start to improve. "By a series of acts startingwith the Married women's Property Act in 1870, amended in 1882 and 1887, marriedwomen achieved the right to own property and to enter contracts on a par withspinsters, widows, and divorcees." As late as the Nineteenth Century anauthority in ancient law, Sir Henry Maine, wrote: "No society whichpreserves any tincture of Christian institutions is likely to restore to marriedwomen the personal liberty conferred on them by the Middle Roman Law."In his essay The Subjection ofWomen, John Stuart Mill wrote: We are continually told that civilization and Christianity have restored to the woman her just rights. Meanwhile the wife is the actual bondservant of her husband; no less so, as far as the legal obligation goes, than slaves commonly so called.Before moving on to the Qur'anicdecrees concerning the status of woman, a few Biblical decrees may shed morelight on the subject, thus providing a better basis for an impartial evaluation.In the Mosaic Law, the wife was betrothed. Explaining this concept, theEncyclopedia Biblica states: "To betroth a wife to oneself meant simply toacquire possession of her by payment of the purchase money; the betrothed is agirl for whom the purchase money has been paid." From the legal point ofview, the consent of the girl was not necessary for the validation of hermarriage. "The girl's consent is unnecessary and the need for it is nowheresuggested in the Law."As to the right of divorce, weread in the Encyclopedia Biblica: "The woman being man's property, hisright to divorce her follows as a matter of course." The right to divorcewas held only by man. "In the Mosaic Law divorce was a privilege of thehusband only .... "The position of the ChristianChurch until recent centuries seems to have been influenced by both the MosaicLaw and by the streams of thought that were dominant in its contemporarycultures. In their book, Marriage East and West, David and Vera Mace wrote: Let no one suppose, either, that our Christian heritage is free of such slighting judgments. It would be hard to find anywhere a collection of more degrading references to the female sex than the early Church Fathers provide. Lecky, the famous historian, speaks of (these fierce incentives which form so conspicuous and so grotesque a portion of the writing of the Fathers . . . woman was represented as the door of hell, as the mother of all human ills. She should be ashamed at the very thought that she is a woman. She should live in continual penance on account of the curses she has brought upon the world. She should be ashamed of her dress, for it is the memorial of her fall. She should be especially ashamed of her beauty, for it is the most potent instrument of the devil). One of the most scathing of these attacks on woman is that of Tertullian: Do you know that you are each an Eve? The sentence of God on this sex of yours lives in this age: the guilt must of necessity live too. You are the devil's gateway: you are the unsealer of that forbidden tree; you are the first deserters of the divine law; you are she who persuades him whom the devil was not valiant enough to attack. You destroyed so easily God's image, man. On account of your desert - that is death - even the Sop of God had to die). Not only did the church affirm the inferior status of woman, it deprived her of legal rights she had previously enjoyed. III. WOMAN IN ISLAMIn the midst of the darkness thatengulfed the world, the divine revelation echoed in the wide desert of Arabiawith a fresh, noble, and universal message to humanity: "O Mankind, keepyour duty to your Lord who created you from a single soul and from it createdits mate (of same kind) and from them twain has spread a multitude of men andwomen" (Qur'an 4: 1).A scholar who pondered about thisverse states: "It is believed that there is no text, old or new, that dealswith the humanity of the woman from all aspects with such amazing brevity,eloquence, depth, and originality as this divine decree."Stressing this noble and naturalconception, them Qur'an states: He (God) it is who did create you from a single soul and therefrom did create his mate, that he might dwell with her (in love)...(Qur'an 7:189) The Creator of heavens and earth: He has made for you pairs from among yourselves ...Qur'an 42:1 1 And Allah has given you mates of your own nature, and has given you from your mates, children and grandchildren, and has made provision of good things for you. Is it then in vanity that they believe and in the grace of God that they disbelieve? Qur'an 16:72The rest of this paper outlinesthe position of Islam regarding the status of woman in society from its variousaspects - spiritually, socially, economically and politically.1. The Spiritual AspectThe Qur'an provides clear-cutevidence that woman iscompletely equated with man in the sight of God interms ofher rights and responsibilities. The Qur'an states: "Every soul will be (held) in pledge for its deeds" (Qur'an 74:38). It also states: ...So their Lord accepted their prayers, (saying): I will not suffer to be lost the work of any of you whether male or female. You proceed one from another ...(Qur'an 3: 195). Whoever works righteousness, man or woman, and has faith, verily to him will We give a new life that is good and pure, and We will bestow on such their reward according to the their actions. (Qur'an 16:97, see also 4:124).Woman according to the Qur'an isnot blamed for Adam's first mistake. Both were jointly wrong in theirdisobedience to God, both repented, and both were forgiven. (Qur'an 2:36, 7:20 -24). In one verse in fact (20:121), Adam specifically, was blamed.In terms of religious obligations,such as the Daily Prayers, Fasting, Poor-due, and Pilgrimage, woman is nodifferent from man. In some cases indeed, woman has certain advantages over man.For example, the woman is exempted from the daily prayers and from fastingduring her menstrual periods and forty days after childbirth. She is alsoexempted from fasting during her pregnancy and when she is nursing her baby ifthere is any threat to her health or her baby's. If the missed fasting isobligatory (during the month of Ramadan), she can make up for the missed dayswhenever she can. She does not have to make up for the prayers missed for any ofthe above reasons. Although women can and did go into the mosque during the daysof the prophet and thereafter attendance et the Friday congregational prayers isoptional for them while it is mandatory for men (on Friday).This is clearly a tender touch ofthe Islamic teachings for they are considerate of the fact that a woman may benursing her baby or caring for him, and thus may be unable to go out to themosque at the time of the prayers. They also take into account the physiologicaland psychological changes associated with her natural female functions.2. The Social Aspecta) As a child and an adolescentDespite the social acceptance offemale infanticide among some Arabian tribes, the Qur'an forbade this custom,and considered it a crime like any other murder. "And when the female (infant) buried alive - is questioned, for what crime she was killed." (Qur'an 81:8-9).Criticizing the attitudes of suchparents who reject their female children, the Qur'an states: When news is brought to one of them, of (the Birth of) a female (child), his face darkens and he is filled with inward grief! With shame does he hide himself from his people because of the bad news he has had! Shall he retain her on (sufferance) and contempt, or bury her in the dust? Ah! What an evil (choice) they decide on? (Qur'an 16: 58-59).Far from saving the girl's life sothat she may later suffer injustice and inequality, Islam requires kind and justtreatment for her. Among the sayings of Prophet Muhammad (P.) in this regard arethe following: Whosoever has a daughter and he does not bury her alive, does not insult her, and does not favor his son over her, God will enter him into Paradise. (Ibn Hanbal, No. 1957). Whosoever supports two daughters till they mature, he and I will come in the day of judgment as this (and he pointed with his two fingers held together).A similar Hadeeth deals in likemanner with one who supports two sisters. (Ibn-Hanbal, No. 2104).The right of females to seekknowledge is not different from that of males. Prophet Muhammad (P.) said: "Seeking knowledge is mandatory for every Muslim". (AlBayhaqi). Muslim as used here including both males and females.b) As a wife:The Qur'an clearly indicates thatmarriage is sharing between the two halves of the society, and that itsobjectives, beside perpetuating human life, are emotional well-being andspiritual harmony. Its bases are love and mercy.Among the most impressive versesin the Qur'an about marriage is the following. "And among His signs is this: That He created mates for you from yourselves that you may find rest, peace of mind in them, and He ordained between you love and mercy. Lo, herein indeed are signs for people who reflect." (Qur'an 30:2 1).According to Islamic Law, womencannot be forced to marry anyone without their consent.Ibn Abbas reported that a girlcame to the Messenger of God, Muhammad (P.), and she reported that her fatherhad forced her to marry without her consent. The Messenger of God gave her thechoice . . . (between accepting the marriage or invalidating it). (Ibn HanbalNo. 2469). In another version, the girl said: "Actually I accept thismarriage but I wanted to let women know that parents have no right (to force ahusband on them)" (Ibn Maja, No. 1873).Besides all other provisions forher protection at the time of marriage, it was specifically decreed that womanhas the full right to her Mahr, a marriage gift, which is presented to her byher husband and is included in the nuptial contract, and that such ownershipdoes not transfer to her father or husband. The concept of Mahr in Islam isneither an actual or symbolic price for the woman, as was the case in certaincultures, but rather it is a gift symbolizing love and affection.The rules for married life inIslam are clear and in harmony with upright human nature. In consideration ofthe physiological and psychological make-up of man and woman, both have equalrights and claims on one another, except for one responsibility, that ofleadership. This is a matter which is natural in any collective life and whichis consistent with the nature of man.The Qur'an thus states: "And they (women) have rights similar to those (of men) over them, and men are a degree above them." (Qur'an 2:228).Such degree is Quiwama(maintenance and protection). This refers to that natural difference between thesexes which entitles the weaker sex to protection. It implies no superiority oradvantage before the law. Yet, man's role of leadership in relation to hisfamily does not mean the husband's dictatorship over his wife. Islam emphasizesthe importance of taking counsel and mutual agreement in family decisions. TheQur'an gives us an example: "...If they (husband wife) desire to wean the child by mutual consent and (after) consultation, there is no blame on them..." (Qur'an 2: 233).Over and above her basic rights asa wife comes the right which is emphasized by the Qur'an and is stronglyrecommended by the Prophet (P); kind treatment and companionship.The Qur'an states: "...But consort with them in kindness, for if you hate them it may happen that you hate a thing wherein God has placed much good." (Qur'an 4: l9). Prophet Muhammad. (P) said: The best of you is the best to his family and I am the best among you to my family. The most perfect believers are the best in conduct and best of you are those who are best to their wives. (Ibn-Hanbal, No. 7396) Behold, many women came to Muhammad's wives complaining against their husbands (because they beat them) - - those (husbands) are not the best of you.As the woman's right to decideabout her marriage is recognized, so also her right to seek an end for anunsuccessful marriage is recognized. To provide for the stability of the family,however, and in order to protect it from hasty decisions under temporaryemotional stress, certain steps and waiting periods should be observed by menand women seeking divorce. Considering the relatively more emotional nature ofwomen, a good reason for asking for divorce should be brought before the judge.Like the man, however, the woman can divorce her husband with out resorting tothe court, if the nuptial contract allows that.More specifically, some aspects ofIslamic Law concerning marriage and divorce are interesting and are worthy ofseparate treatment.When the continuation of themarriage relationship is impossible for any reason, men are still taught to seeka gracious end for it.The Qur'an states about suchcases: When you divorce women, and they reach their prescribed term, then retain them in kindness and retain them not for injury so that you transgress (the limits). (Qur'an 2:231). (See also Qur'an 2:229 and 33:49).c) As a mother:Islam considered kindness toparents next to the worship of God. "And we have enjoined upon man (to be good) to his parents: His mother bears him in weakness upon weakness..." (Qur'an 31:14) (See also Qur'an 46:15, 29:8).Moreover, the Qur'an has a specialrecommendation for the good treatment of mothers: "Your Lord has decreed that you worship none save Him, and that you be kind to your parents. . ." (Qur'an 17:23).A man came to Prophet Muhammad (P)asking: O Messenger of God, who among the people is the most worthy of my good company? The Prophet (P) said, Your mother. The man said then who else: The Prophet (P) said, Your mother. The man asked, Then who else? Only then did the Prophet (P) say, Your father. (Al-Bukhari and Muslim).A famous saying of The Prophet is"Paradise is at the feet of mothers." (In Al'Nisa'I, Ibn Majah,Ahmad)."It is the generous (incharacter) who is good to women, and it is the wicked who insults them."3. The Economic AspectIslam decreed a right of whichwoman was deprived both before Islam and after it (even as late as thiscentury), the right of independent ownership. According to Islamic Law, woman'sright to her money, real estate, or other properties is fully acknowledged. Thisright undergoes no change whether she is single or married. She retains her fullrights to buy, sell, mortgage or lease any or all her properties. It is nowheresuggested in the Law that a woman is a minor simply because she is a female. Itis also noteworthy that such right applies to her properties before marriage aswell as to whatever she acquires thereafter.With regard to the woman's rightto seek employment it should be stated first that Islam regards her role insociety as a mother and a wife as the most sacred and essential one. Neithermaids nor baby-sitters can possibly take the mother's place as the educator ofan upright, complex free, and carefully-reared children. Such a noble and vitalrole, which largely shapes the future of nations, cannot be regarded as"idleness".However, there is no decree inIslam which forbids woman from seeking employment whenever there is a necessityfor it, especially in positions which fit her nature and in which society needsher most. Examples of these professions are nursing, teaching (especially forchildren), and medicine. Moreover, there is no restriction on benefiting fromwoman's exceptional talent in any field. Even for the position of a judge, wherethere may be a tendency to doubt the woman's fitness for the post due to hermore emotional nature, we find early Muslim scholars such as Abu-Hanifa and Al-Tabaryholding there is nothing wrong with it. In addition, Islam restored to woman theright of inheritance, after she herself was an object of inheritance in somecultures. Her share is completely hers and no one can make any claim on it,including her father and her husband. "Unto men (of the family) belongs a share of that which Parents and near kindred leave, and unto women a share of that which parents and near kindred leave, whether it be a little or much - a determinate share." ((Qur'an 4:7).Her share in most cases isone-half the man's share, with no implication that she is worth half a man! Itwould seem grossly inconsistent after the overwhelming evidence of woman'sequitable treatment in Islam, which was discussed in the preceding pages, tomake such an inference. This variation in inheritance rights is only consistentwith the variations in financial responsibilities of man and woman according tothe Islamic Law. Man in Islam is fully responsible for the maintenance of hiswife, his children, and in some cases of his needy relatives, especially thefemales. This responsibility is neither waived nor reduced because of his wife'swealth or because of her access to any personal income gained from work, rent,profit, or any other legal means.Woman, on the other hand, is farmore secure financially and is far less burdened with any claims on herpossessions. Her possessions before marriage do not transfer to her husband andshe even keeps her maiden name. She has no obligation to spend on her family outof such properties or out of her income after marriage. She is entitled to the"Mahr" which she takes from her husband at the time of marriage. Ifshe is divorced, she may get an alimony from her ex-husband.An examination of the inheritancelaw within the overall framework of the Islamic Law reveals not only justice butalso an abundance of compassion for woman.4. The Political AspectAny fair investigation of theteachings of Islam o~ into the history of the Islamic civilization will surelyfind a clear evidence of woman's equality with man in what we call today"political rights".This includes the right ofelection as well as the nomination to political offices. It also includeswoman's right to participate in public affairs. Both in the Qur'an and inIslamic history we find examples of women who participated in seriousdiscussions and argued even with the Prophet (P) himself, (see Qur'an 58: 14 and60: 10-12).During the Caliphate of Omar Ibnal-Khattab, a woman argued with him in the mosque, proved her point, and causedhim to declare in the presence of people: "A woman is right and Omar iswrong."Although not mentioned in theQur'an, one Hadeeth of the Prophet is interpreted to make woman ineligible forthe position of head of state. The Hadeeth referred to is roughly translated:"A people will not prosper if they let a woman be their leader." Thislimitation, however, has nothing to do with the dignity of woman or with herrights. It is rather, related to the natural differences in the biological andpsychological make-up of men and women.According to Islam, the head ofthe state is no mere figurehead. He leads people in the prayers, especially onFridays and festivities; he is continuously engaged in the process ofdecision-making pertaining to the security and well-being of his people. Thisdemanding position, or any similar one, such as the Commander of the Army, isgenerally inconsistent with the physiological and psychological make-up of womanin general. It is a medical fact that during their monthly periods and duringtheir pregnancies, women undergo various physiological and psychologicalchanges. Such changes may occur during an emergency situation, thus affectingher decision, without considering the excessive strain which is produced.Moreover, some decisions require a maximum of rationality and a minimum ofemotionality - a requirement which does not coincide with the instinctive natureof women.Even in modern times, and in themost developed countries, it is rare to find a woman in the position of a headof state acting as more than a figurehead, a woman commander of the armedservices, or even a proportionate number of women representatives inparliaments, or similar bodies. One can not possibly ascribe this tobackwardness of various nations or to any constitutional limitation on woman'sright to be in such a position as a head of state or as a member of theparliament. It is more logical to explain the present situation in terms of thenatural and indisputable differences between man and woman, a difference whichdoes not imply any "supremacy" of one over the other. The differenceimplies rather the "complementary" roles of both the sexes in life. IV. CONCLUSIONThe first part of this paper dealsbriefly with the position of various religions and cultures on the issue underinvestigation. Part of this exposition extends to cover the general trend aslate as the nineteenth century, nearly 1300 years after the Qur'an set forth theIslamic teachings.In the second part of the paper,the status of women in Islam is briefly discussed. Emphasis in this part isplaced on the original and authentic sources of Islam. This represents thestandard according to which degree of adherence of Muslims can be judged. It isalso a fact that during the downward cycle of Islamic Civilization, suchteachings were not strictly adhered to by many people who profess to be Muslims.Such deviations were unfairlyexaggerated by some writers, and the worst of this, were superficially taken torepresent the teachings of "Islam" to the Western reader withouttaking the trouble to make any original and unbiased study of the authenticsources of these teachings.Even with such deviations threefacts are worth mentioning:1. The history of Muslims is richwith women of great achievements in all walks of life from as early as theseventh century (B.C.)2. It is impossible for anyone tojustify any mistreatment of woman by any decree of rule embodied in the IslamicLaw, nor could anyone dare to cancel, reduce, or distort the clear-cut legalrights of women given in Islamic Law.3. Throughout history, thereputation, chastity and maternal role of Muslim women were objects ofadmiration by impartial observers.It is also worthwhile to statethat the status which women reached during the present era was not achieved dueto the kindness of men or due to natural progress. It was rather achievedthrough a long struggle and sacrifice on woman's part and only when societyneeded her contribution and work, more especial!; during the two world wars, anddue to the escalation of technological change.In the case of Islam suchcompassionate and dignified status was decreed, not because it reflects theenvironment of the seventh century, nor under the threat or pressure of womenand their organizations, but rather because of its intrinsic truthfulness.If this indicates anything, itwould demonstrate the divine origin of the Qur'an and the truthfulness of themessage of Islam, which, unlike human philosophies and ideologies, was far fromproceeding from its human environment, a message which established such humaneprinciples as neither grew obsolete during the course of time and after thesemany centuries, nor can become obsolete in the future. After all, this is themessage of the All-Wise and all-knowing God whose wisdom and knowledge are farbeyond the ultimate in human thought and progress. BIBLIOGRAPHYThe Holy, Qur'an: Translation ofverses is heavily based on A. Yusuf Ali's translation, The Glorious Qur'an, texttranslation, and Commentary, The American Trust Publication, Plainfield, IN46168, 1979.Abd Al-Ati, Hammudah, Islam inFocus, The American Trust Publications, Plainfield, IN 46168, 1977.Allen, E. A., History ofCivilization, General Publishing House, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1889, Vol. 3.Al Siba'i, Mustafa, Al-Alar'ahBaynal Fiqh Walqanoon (in Arabic), 2nd. ea., Al-Maktabah Al-Arabiah, Halab,Syria, 1966.El-Khouli, Al-Bahiy, "MinUsus Kadiat Al-Mara'ah" (in Arabic), A 1- Waay A l-lslami, Ministry ofWalcf, Kuwait, Vol.3 (No. 27), June 9, 1967, p.17.Encyclopedia Americana(International Edition), American Corp., N.Y., 1969, Vol.29.Encyclopedia Biblica (Rev.T.K.Cheyneneand J.S.Black, editors), The Macmillan Co., London, England, 1902, Vol.3.The Encyclopedia Britannica, (11th ed.), University Press Cambridge, England, 191 1, Vol.28.Encyclopedia Britannica, TheEncyclopedia Britannica, Inc., Chicago, III., 1968, Vol.23.Hadeeth. Most of the quotedHadeeth were translated by the writer. They are quoted in various Arabicsources. Some of them, however, were translated directly from the originalsources. Among the sources checked are Musnad Ahmad Ibn Hanbal Dar AlMa'aref,Cairo, U.A.R., 1950, and 1955, Vol.4 and 3,SunanIbnMajah, Dar Ihya'a Al-Kutubal-Arabiah, Cairo, U.A.R., 1952, Vol.l, Sunan al-Tirimidhi, Vol.3.Mace, David and Vera, Marriage:East and West, Dolphin Books, Doubleday and Co., Inc., N.Y., 1960.
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