The First Contacts of Islam with Balkans
Islam’s first contacts withthe Balkan nationsby Nexhat Ibrahimi CONTENTS IntroductionHistorical and social conditions of the Balkan nationsFactors that made Islam a reality in the BalkansReligious factorMoral factorCultural and intellectual factorPolitical and economic factorSocial factorHow Islamic civilization made ways into the Balkan PeninsulaTrade relationsMilitary and political relationsMissionaries and migrationsConclusionBibliographyAbout the author IntroductionIslamic civilization is the dominant force over a great number of nations,from the Atlantic Ocean in the West to Indochina in the East, and fromthe West and North Africa in the South to the Central Asia in the North,encompassing the Balkan Peninsula in the South-Eastern Europe. It has facedand absorbed various "small" civilizations of the many different nationsaround the world and presented them with new moral and spiritual alternatives. It is very difficult to exactly point out the nation that has done themost in forming, developing, and spreading this civilization around theworld. However, the Arabs have the honor to be the first in spreading theGod’s revelation—the Koran—but, they were not alone. The Persians, Berbers,Mongols, and the Ottomans have given great contribution to this end. Insofar as the people of the Balkan Peninsula are concerned, the Ottomanswere crucial in spreading Islam. However, it would be a great error toqualify the Islamic civilization in the Balkan Peninsula as "Turkish,"because the whole material and cultural development was achieved throughIslam—the complete way of life—together with the other Balkan nations,especially the Albanians and Bosnians. It is very important to note here that the Balkan nations had extensivetrade, political, and military relations with their Muslim counterparts.Exchanging officials and migrations of individuals, or groups of people,are other important features of their strong relations. But, the relations of the Balkan nations with the Ottomans were muchlonger and more intensive compare to those with other Muslims, and lastedfrom the end of the 15th century to the Balkan Wars in 1912. The relations between the Balkan nations (especially the Albanians)and Arabs have existed for a very long time (even before the ChristianEra), and the Arab world was of great importance for the emergence of theAlbanian and Bosnian phenomenon (read the quick acceptance of Islam). However,in spite of these facts, this point was never made the subject of a thoroughresearch from any institution or individual. The problem is very complex in nature because its sociological, ethnicand cultural, political, ideological, and religious aspects are very muchintervened. Political prejudices and mistaken assumptions were consideredas "true historic facts" and became part of the official stance towardsIslam. Thus, a new study was needed to shed light on the truth. A new historicapproach, free of any prejudice in dealing with the religious, political,economic, and cultural aspects of the pre-Islamic feudal life of the Balkannations, especially of the Albanians, had to be undertaken. Historians and Muslim scholars who have seriously approached and studiedthe pre-Ottoman period are very few in number. Among the Albanians areM. Tërnava, S. Rizaj, M. Mufaku, H. Kaleshi, E. Çabej, etc.,and among the Bosnians we have M. Hand?i?, M. Had?ijahi?, etc. But, itis a pity that some very important literature of the oriental history hasyet to be considered by our scholars simply because it is mainly writtenin Arabic, Turkish, or Persian. A translation of those works has to beurgently done. In this "small" book, which is an elaborated version of an article ofmine in Takvin some ten years ago, I have presented some recentlypublished new facts from the history of the Balkan nations (especiallyof the Albanians) taken from various writings and put them together ina constructive and objective manner. I do not pretend to have includedeverything, thus the research remains open. I have not been able to consultsome very important literature and crucial to this book that I had collectedbetween 1987 and 1992 because they were confiscated by the Serb policeand never returned. However, I only look at this book as the first sparkle that is goingto give a strong impetus to future and much more thorough works. The existenceof Islam and Muslims in the Balkan Peninsula for not less than thirteencenturies must be understood justly and without any prejudice. Notes: 1. Historical and social conditionsof the Balkan nationsThe time period studied in this book spans from the beginning of theChristianization of the people living in the Balkan Peninsula until theOttomans conquered it at the end of the 14th century. The eventsthat took place during this period were very important and would subsequentlyinfluence the developments during the 14th and 15thcenturies, and later, that is, the quick acceptance of Islam by the Albaniansand later by other nations. Thus, in order to better understand such aquick acceptance of Islam by the Balkan nations, it is very important togive an exposé of the historical, social, and religious conditionsof the people living in the Balkan Peninsula, firstly the Illyrians andlater the Slav tribes. The Illyrians, who were settled in between the Danube River and AdriaticSea, were polytheists, however, Christianity was gaining ground slowly.In 313, by virtue of the Edict of Milan, the Roman Empire adopted Christianityas its official religion and the people of the Balkan Peninsula were understrong pressure to give in. The Romans entered Illyria mainly through Salonika in the South, thecoasts of the Adriatic Sea in the West, and through Dalmatia in the North-West.It was during this time that the first Christian communites appeared amongthe Illyrians. The invasion of the Germanic tribes that occurred from the 4thuntil the 6th century (the Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Huns, etc.)brought the collapse of the Roman Empire in 476. The end of the 5thand the beginning of the 6th century saw the Bulgars and manySlav tribes attacking and plundering the borders of the Byzantine Empire.The invasion of the Slav tribes that lasted from the end of the 6thuntil the 7th century resulted in them settling permanentlyin the territories between the Danube River and Aegean Sea. According to some research done by E. Petrovi?, the autochthonous population(the Illyrians) found by the Slav tribes in the present-day Eastern Serbiawere not Romanized (read Christianized), and he gives the names of placesand peoples as an evidence. This period was characterized by the institutionalization of the Christianreligion and its emerging strong connections with the ruling feudals. Thedifficult social and economic conditions that followed brought about strongresurgences. During this time in Illyria, as well as in many other places, the difficulteconomic situation and the spiritual discontention paved the way for manynew doctrines to emerge, and some of them went against the institutionalizedChristian religion. Small sects, such as Manichaeism, Arianism, etc., wereto be found everywhere, something that was not to the liking of the Churchand they took stern action against them. Even the later periods were characterizedby the same conditions. In the 9th century, the Byzantine Empire took some interestin the Balkan Peninsula and it was able to again control most of the present-dayAlbania. However, the invasion of Slav tribes, especially the Serbs, provedto be a big problem for the empire. S. Hill notes that, in the end of the 9th century, the Bulgarshad gained controll over the Eastern Albania and they were very near tothe port-city of Durazzo, whereas S. Demiraj says that the Bulgars ruledmuch of the present-day Albania between 815 and 1018. The Bulgars had their"golden period" when Simeon was reigning (893-927), when even Kosova wasruled by them. Thus, in the beginning of the 11th century, Albaniawas the battlefield for the Byzantine Empire fighting against the Bulgars.In 1018, the Bulgars were defeated in the battle near Berati and the ByzantineEmpire, then ruled by the feared Vasil II, again took control of Albania.But, throughout the 11th century there were numerous resurgences,those of 1040, 1043, 1070, 1078, 1080, etc. In 1054, because of inter-Christian skirmishes, Kosova was divided intotwo parts: the Eastern Kosova fell under the influence of the OrthodoxChristians, and the Western Kosova under the influence of the CatholicChristians. Such chaotic situation lasted until 1347 when the Serbs under StefanDushan invaded the whole of Albania and drove out the Roman and ByzantineEmpires. However, Kosova had been under the Serb rule earlier than that.All the historians agree that the Serbs settled in Kosova from the 12thuntil the 14th century when they invaded Zveçani, Gjakova,Peja, Drenica, Llapi, etc., but there had been no sings of them prior tothat time. The different invadors, religious contradictions between the Christiansand others, religious contradictions between the Catholic Christians andOrthodox Christians, etc., enormously aggravated the situation of the Illyro-Albanians. When Stefan Dushan died, the Serb kingdom was doomed and the feudalsfounded small independent principalities. The Albanian feudals sized theopportunity and formed three independent principalities: the Principalityof Arta in Southern Albania, Principality of Durazzo in Central Albania,and the Principality of Shkodra in Northern Albania which was the largest. On the other hand, when it came to strongly rejecting the institutionalizedChristian religion, the Bogumils (the predecessors of the present-day Bosnians)stood out. They migrated towards the Balkan Peninsula around the 10thcentury and settled in the eastern parts of it (Rumelia, the present-dayRomania). Their religious beliefs were strongly influenced by Hebrew andManichaeism. This was the very reason that, when they were ruled by theSerbs from the 12th until the 14th century, the Bogumilswere persecuted and, in the 13th century, forced to move tothe Western parts of the peninsula (in what today is Bosnia). They werelabeled as heretics by both the Catholic Christians and Orthodox Christians. Notes: 2. Factors that made Islam a realityin the balkansThe first traces of the Islamic civilization in the Balkan Peninsulago back as far as before the Medieval Period. The first Muslims among theBalkan nations date back to the time of the first invasions by the Slavtribes who were not Christians (they had their own Slavic beliefs). TheBosnian scholar M. Had?ijahi? says: "This is true because there are factsto back it and subsequently the first appearance of Christianity amongthe Balkan nations might have coincided with that of Islam." The strategic geographic position of the Balkan Peninsula has made itspeople (especially the Albanians) to venture and establish contacts withmany other nations, especially those in the Aegean Sea and Near East. Thehistorians and archeologists have concluded that the Balkan people conductedextensive trade relations with others. The Balkan nations had access tothe Silk Road that connected Europe with China and Persia. Apart from travellingoverland, they also used to travel by sea, and established mutual political,economic, and military relations. Before going deeper and analyzing how the Islamic civilization enteredthe Balkan Peninsula, it is necessary to take a look at the factors thatmade it possible for the Balkan nations to embrace it. Those factors aredifferent in nature, however, each had its own influence. 2.1. Religious factorIn the history of Albanians, and in that of other Balkan nations aswell, this factor has been generally overlooked when it came to analyzinghow Islam penetrated the Balkan Peninsula. But, in spite of the difficulties,it is necessary to see what Islam offered in the face of Christianity,Manichaeism, or polytheism that made the Illyro-Albanians embrace it veryearly. Islam made people to clearly understand what God is all about and whatwas the humankind’s mission on Earth. Islam, apart from the spiritual aspect,regulates the daily life of the people as well—every single action of oursmust be in accordance with the God’s laws of harmony. Islam, through the Koran, offered new spiritual and material alternatives.Islam offered monotheism and the timeless law (shariah), and itsmain objectives were helping and enriching humankind as the God’s vicegerenton Earth. A European historian, Stavrianos, observes that "the religion itselfwas the main factor for the quick and large acceptance of Islam." Christianitypresents only some restricted spiritual dogma, whereas Islam is a completeway of life incorporating spirituality to many other rules of the dailylife. Islam strongly preaches monotheism through its many prophets. However,in the course of time, the monotheistic concepts had degraded. Islam soughtto reverse this process by propagating the oneness of God through the manyinjunctions in the Koran referring to this point. A controversial element of the Christian religion that has made peoplethink is the divinity of Jesus Christ. It is a historic fact that the divinityof Christ is a "product" of later periods. The notion of Christ as "God-human"was included in the Christian dogma in 451, however, some Christian sectsstill refuse to accept it. The example of Prophet Mohammed was of great importance in influencingpeople. Those who long to be the perfect son or daughter, husband or wife,father or mother, or long to be the perfect rulers, should follow his example.The Koran itself takes Prophet Mohammed to be the best model. And thiswas in contrast to the personality of Christ who, during his short life,was unable to provide people with the needed path to follow. Many other aspects of the Christian dogma, the likes of original sin,celibacy, etc., go against the human nature. These aspects, together withthe incompetent and ignorant Christian clerics, made people to behave indifferentlytowards Christianity and subsequently embrace Islam. 2.2. Moral factorMoral values play an important role in the development of a society,and Islam puts great emphasis on them. Moral values of a Muslim are foundedin the loyalty towards God, and they are expressed in all daily actions. The altruistic motto of Muslims—care for your brother first and thenyourself—gave a whole new meaning to human relations. Everything was basedon love, harmony, justice, etc. The Koran totally refutes barriers of race,color, or language. Islam puts into reality the timeless rule of "encouraging the good andprohibiting the evil." The Koran and Prophet Mohammed provide many injunctionsin this aspect. This new element made the life of Muslims more complete,creative, and meaningful. Every action a Muslim does is part of the Islamicframework and God does not only encourage belief through prayers, but beliefthrough actions as well. The stories of the great Muslim traveler, IbnBatuta, are an example. In 1333, he visited the Asia Minor, and has onlypraise for the hospitality of the Muslims living there. On the other hand, the Christian dogma was restricted only to the personalspiritual aspects of life—Christianity never preached moral rules applyingto the society as a whole. This made the Christian religion loose groundto the emerging Islam. 2.3. Cultural and intellectual factorIslam is a religion that does not recognize mythology and superstitions.Indeed, it is a very simple and rational religion that gives great emphasison knowledge and learning. God has made learning the foremost obligationof the humankind, and because of this fundamental principle, the Islamiccivilization has seen fourteen centuries of successful development. The Muslims never destroyed like the Mongols did in Baghdad, or theChristians in Spain, or the crusaders in the Middle East, or the Romansin Illyria and Greece, but they absorbed and defended whatever positivethe previous civilizations had. M. Asad, a well known Muslim scholar, said that Islam was "a new refinedcivilization full of life, using the cultural heritage Europe had forgotten." Never in the history of Islam there were episodes like those of G. Bruno,N. Copernicus, G. Galilei, etc. Astronomy, chemistry, medicine, physics,etc., were not labeled as evil knowledge, but as a treasure to be enrichedevery day. Islam has never recognized the division of knowledge into religiousand non-religious disciplines. Prophet Mohammed himself has encouragedpeople to do the utmost in seeking knowledge. This great affinity between Islam and knowledge made people to takea positive stand and eventually embrace it. 2.4. Political and economic factorMany people have tried to represent Islam as a religion without anypolitical and economic principles of its own. This was done to somehowput Islam in the same footing with Christianity, or other religions forthat matter. However, Islam preaches a whole new concept of human relations withno place for nationalism, class divisions, clergy, etc. The sole aim ofIslam is founding of theocracy concerning humankind’s relations with God,and founding democracy concerning relations among humans themselves. In the basis of the political system of Islam is the concept of vicegerency—thesupreme power rests with God. Equality before the law is another strongprinciple of the political system of Islam and even the state’s highestofficial, the caliph, cannot dodge this obligation. Another principle of the political system of Islam are the guidelinesadopted to carry out state affairs, i.e., the God’s timeless law—shariah.Everything must go accordingly to the God’s law and some practices of ProphetMohammed. Furthermore, the principle of democracy is crucial. All the stateaffairs are to be carried out through consultation (shura). All the human rights (the right of expression, right of movement, rightto elect and be elected, right to education, etc.) have their roots atthose above principles. On the other hand, the political repression exercised by the ByzantineEmpire over the Balkan nations, something that was elaborated in the firstchapter, was important for the emergence of Islam. The victories the Muslimsachieved against the Byzantine and Persian Empires were of great psychologicalinfluence and helped in the spread of Islam. But, apart from the political aspect, Islam gives great emphasis tothe economic aspect of life—the just ways to make a profit, the ways tothe just possession, and moderate spending. In the economic framework ofIslam, everybody must earn his living through honest means. The concept of vicegerency applies to the economic life of Muslims aswell. Everything that exists on Earth belongs to God, and the humankindconstitutes only the "user." Islam strives for equality among the people,and this does not mean equal possession, but equal opportunity. In order to achieve this, Islam has prescribed some mechanisms: zakat,obligatory and voluntary sadaqah, inheritance laws, institutionof waqf, jizya, etc. All these mechanisms have an importantrole in the consolidation of the economic system of Islam. Many injunctions from the Koran that prohibit exploitation, monopolization,interests on loans, etc., and some traditions (hadith) of ProphetMohammed form the basis of the economic system of Islam that has appealedto many people. 2.5. Social factorWhen establishing contacts with the Balkan nations, Christians or polytheists,the Muslims saw them living in very difficult social conditions. The manydifferent rulers—the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, the Bulgarians,and the Serbs—had created some kind of social chaos. It was the Muslimswho brought a completely new approach to the social life of the Balkannations. God created the humankind from a single couple (one man and one woman),and this is the foundation of the Islamic approach to the society as awhole. In contrast to other religious and philosophical principles, Islam isnot based on a particular birthplace, or nationality, or language. Islamrecognizes these diversities and tries to establish itself as the unitingforce above them all. Prophet Mohammed himself, in his address he madeduring his last pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj), advised people to establishjust social relations without any prejudice. Islam refutes unjust artificial criterions, and through the obligatorypillars of belief, i.e., proclaiming the oneness of God, the five dailyprayers, fasting, zakat, etc., establishes a new feeling of socialequality. In order to further elaborate the social aspect of Islam, and illustrateit as well, the role of women is a good example. It is well accepted thatwomen play a crucial part in the institution of family. Woman, whether she is a daughter, a wife, or a mother, is given a prominentrole and considered equal in every aspect to her male counterpart. In thefamily, she is the first to instill love, kindness, sincerity, and educatethe young generation. There are many injunctions from the Koran, and manytraditions (hadith) from Prophet Mohammed as well, concerning thispoint. But, the treatment given to women by other beliefs, Christianity forthat matter, leaves much to be desired. They treat women as the devil’sinstruments to ruin people. Slavery was another aspect that the new social order of Islam triedto regulate, and possibly totally vanish. Neither Christianity, which actuallyhad blessed slavery, nor other philosophical doctrines have spoken againstit. But, Islam sanctions better conditions for the slaves, and even encouragesthe prohibition of slavery. The Koran has many injunctions, and ProphetMohammed has many traditions (hadith) as well, concerning the possibleprohibition of slavery. Taking in consideration all these factors, i.e., the religious, moral,cultural and intellectual, political and economic, and social factors,and most importantly the changes that Islam had brought about, it was simpleto understand the easiness with which Islam was accepted by the Balkannations. Notes: 3. HOW ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION MADE WAYS INTOTHE BALKAN PENINSULAHow the Islamic civilization emerged in the Balkan Peninsula is oneof the most complex problems and requires a multi-dimensional research.Unfortunately, a lot of historic facts concerning Islam and the BalkanPeninsula have been "forgotten," or even distorted. This has been becauseof centuries of pressure from the Serb and European historians and theirpolitical establishments. Almost every book written on the history of Islamwill somehow underline this point. One good example would be an articleof R. Doçi where he calls the Christianization of the Albaniansduring the Medieval Period as "prosperity," forgetting the destructionand barbarisms that the many invaders inflicted for centuries. On the otherhand, the emergence of Islam, which he ties to the Ottoman invasion, iscalled the "doom’s day" of the Albanians. There is place for subjectivism among the Muslim scholars, too. Theyoften see the emergence of Islam from a very narrow "Islamic" angle. Thishas made the scholarship to be divided into two opposite poles: those whoblacken everything Islamic, and those who idealize everything Islamic.That is why an objective study, free of any national sympathies, and freeof any religious fundamentalism, is crucial so that we can learn the truehistory, and not the history we would like it to have been. Looking at the relevant literature, we would conclude that the two waysthat enabled the spread of Islam were: (1) the military expeditions sentto extend the borders of the state of Islam, and (2) the persuasive powersof the Islamic teachings themselves made people ultimately embrace it. Insofar as the nations of the Balkan Peninsula are concerned, the overwhelminghistoric evidence points out that the military expeditions were of verylittle importance to the spread of Islam. Thus, the teachings of Islamthemselves were crucial in wining people over. The Koran itself declaresthat "there is compulsion in religion," and this gave people the feelingof freedom for the first time in centuries. The very famous Albanian writer,S. Frashëri, observes: "Apart from the usage of military might tospread Islam, there does exist another way without turning to invasionor the force of arms, a way that is often not mentioned by the historians."T. Arnold considers this a major point and mentions it in his book, too. Looking back in history, it is easy to understand which way was themost influential in spreading Islam, the force of arms or its teachings.In most of the times, the Muslim armies only opened the "door" for theIslamic civilization to present itself, and ultimately the people wouldsee the difference. Islamic civilization entered the Balkan Peninsula mainly from the Westthrough the contacts with Andalusia in Spain, from South through MediterraneanSea and Sicily, and from North-East through Hungary. However, this bookdoes not tend to answer the question of where Islam came from, but it ismore concerned with the question of how did it come. Even though the evidence is short, after a serious analysis, the answerto the above question—how did Islam come to the Balkan Peninsula—wouldbe finally achieved. After all the research, three are the ways through which the Islamiccivilization gained its foothold in the Balkan Peninsula, and a furtherelaboration of them will follow. 3.1. Trade relationsThe development of Islamic civilization and of the Muslims themselvesconditioned the expansion of trade. The goods produced were mainly tradedwith the neighbor nations, however, the traders often ventured even furtherto far and unknown places. This is why that since the 9th centurythe trade relations between Europe and Middle East through the MediterraneanSea were booming. In these trade relations, the most daring Europeans werethose from Florence, Venice, Pizza, Genoa, followed by the French, andCatalonians. The European merchants through Egypt and Syria ventured faraway to the Far East. The Illyro-Albanians had established trade relations with the Arab andTurkish nations, and not only the port-cities of the Adriatic Sea, butthe rural parts of the Balkan Peninsula inhabited by them as well. Suchstrong trade relations were established since the ancient times, and wenton into the pre-Ottoman and Ottoman periods. The Arab gold and silver coins excavated in Potoci, near Mostar of thepresent-day Bosnia-Hercegovina, date back to the time of Marwan II (744-750)which tells of the extensive trade relations the Muslims had with the Balkannations, first the Albanians and later the Slavs. Port-cities along the Adriatic Sea like Dubrovnik, Tivari, Ulqini, Durazzo,Valona, Himara, etc., and other Greek and Southern Italian cities werecenters of trade. During the 12th century, the well known Muslimhistorians and travelers, Al-Idris and Ibn Hawkali, tell in fine detailsthe social and political situation of those places. They also describethe road going through the Balkan Peninsula, from the Aegean Sea alongthe valley of the Vardar River to the coasts of Adriatic Sea. Usually the Italian merchants traveled by sea, whereas the Muslims mostlytraveled overland. The merchants from Venice and Florence used to traderegularly and exchanged their goods mostly in Istanbul and Gallata. Wellknown are also the caravans from Dubrovnik to Istanbul, and vice versa. Such strong trade relations have had a great impact on the Balkan nations.Apart from buying and selling, which was the primary intention, the merchantsbrought a lot of new ideas and changes. This was intensified further whenthe Muslim merchants started to establish themselves in some fortifiedand secured coastal cities. The first Muslim colonies appeared. Thoughthey were very small in the beginning, they became larger, and even stronger. 3.2. Military and political relationsThe quick development of the Muslim community (ummah) resultedin its expansion in all directions. By 634, the Muslims had started toattack the borders of the Byzantine Empire, and made the first attemptto conquer Constantinople (now Istanbul). Some years later, in 717-718,the Muslim army under the command of Maslama surrounded Constantinople,however, they could not conquer it. In this expedition, the Muslim armypenetrated as far as Adrianople (now Edirne) and Salonika, and this isknown as the first contact of the Balkan nations with the Muslim armies.They also built a mosque near Gallata, known as the Arab Mosque. This ledthe Arabs (read Muslims) to establish their first colonies in Constantinopleand Salonika. Apart from the Muslim colonies, the Slavs built their own small coloniesinside the Byzantine Empire. In the battle of Sevastopol in 664, a groupof 2000 Slav soldiers were fighting together with the Muslim army againstthe Byzantine Empire. In 717-741, a very bloody conflict was going on between two OrthodoxChristian sects: those who were against worshiping the paintings, frescos,sculptures, etc., and those who were for them. Often those who were againstworshiping paintings, frescos, and sculptures asked the assistance of Muslims,thus, they were well aware that Islamic teachings were against worshipingidols. In the 9th century, the Arabs were more direct in their intentionstowards the Balkan Peninsula. This was simple to understand because theyconquered Crete in 823, Sicily in 827, and some parts of the Southern Italyas well, and the Balkan Peninsula was next in the line. During 840-841, the Muslims conquered Taranto, Italy, and undertookincursions into the Balkan Peninsula invading Budva, Kotor, Rosi, and Rijeka.They even surrounded Dubrovnik for fifteen years, but without any success.This was the time when the Illyro-Albanians had their first contacts withthe Muslim armies. They kept attacking the Balkan Peninsula until 1023when they lost control of the Southern Italy. The traces of this new civilization are to be found everywhere. Nearbythe cathedral of Trogir there is a relief of an Arab man wearing turbanwhich is a sign of well established relationships. There also are the tombsof two Arabs, which is a fact that they must have been living there forsome time. By the beginning of the 14th century, the Arabs ceased interveningdirectly into the Balkan Peninsula, however, other Muslim tribes from theAsia Minor were keen on the peninsula. In 1307, those Turkish-originatedtribes under the leadership of Malik and Halil entered the peninsula aspart of a Catalonian division and went as far as Sveta Gora. The invasion of the Peceneg tribes had a great impact. There are contradictingviews as to when they first appeared: some say they came in the 8thcentury, and some others say they came in the 9th and 10thcenturies. It seems that the former view is more accurate because theyappeared at the same time when the independent feudal states did so, i.e.,the 8th century. T. Arnold observes that the Peceneg tribesmigrated from the coasts of the Ural River and settled in the present-dayMacedonia. But, the most important point is that the Peceneg tribes were Muslims,and were also known as "Ismailites." However, many authors observe thatthe Peceneg tribes were real "barbarians" who attacked and looted all overthe peninsula. But, this should not let us oversee the fact that they wereMuslims. On the other hand, Spain’s invasion by the Muslims opened a new chapterin their relations with the Balkan nations. Some of the Slav tribes, especiallythe Slovenians and Croats, had good relations with the Muslim Spain. Inthe royal court of Hakemi I (791-822) there were 2000 guards of Croatianorigin. Such a big number of guards indicates of extensive relations betweenthem. This variety of military relations was extended to the politics, too.The Muslim countries had cordial relationship with their Balkan counterparts.In 856, the Serb king, Mikhail III, sent his envoy to the caliph Mutawakilb. Rashid of the Abbasid dynasty to arrange a form of debate on the religiousmatters. In 922, the Bulgarian king sent an envoy to caliph Al-Muktadir of theAbbasid dynasty to convey his family’s decision to embrace Islam. In this point, well known are the contacts that caliph Harun Al-Rashidhad established with the European rulers. He had sent his envoy to theSerb king, Carl the Great, in order to establish cordial and reciprocalrelations. The Croat ruler, prince Tomislav, had good relations with caliph AbdurahmanIII and used to even exchange gifts. Abdurahman III had sent envoys toall the Slav kingdoms to discuss and charter their future relations. The Europeans, the Balkan nations included, kept continuous contactswith the Muslims—the Fatimids (969-1171), the Eyubids (1171-1250) and theMamelukes (1250-1517)—because of various interests, trade being one ofthem. In general, we see the Slavs as allied to the Muslims against the Romanand Byzantine Empires. However, their relations with the Illyro-Albanianswill define the future military and political actors of the Balkan Peninsula.At the beginning, those relations were cordial, but changed rapidly. It looks like there was no military and political contacts between Illyro-Albaniansand the Muslims, but that is not true. There were various contacts betweenthem, however, the fact that Illyro-Albanians were ruled by the foreigners—theRoman and Byzantine Empires, the Serbs, etc.—means that they were almostnever identified as an independent political entity. 3.3. Missionaries and migrationsMaybe the most important factor that influenced the rapid spread ofIslam among the Illyro-Albanians were the missionaries and migrations ofdifferent groups of people. There are indications that travelers and theologistsvisited almost every part of the peninsula centuries before the Ottomansappeared and played an important role in preaching Islam. This was in someway assisted by the fact that the Muslims controlled many territories aroundthe Balkan Peninsula (Southern Italy, some Greek islands, the Asia Minor,etc.), and by the incursions of the Muslim armies as well. Maybe the most important among the migrations was a group of TurkishMuslims who settled in Southern Hungary (near the border with the ByzantineEmpire) and somewhere near the Ohrid Lake as well (almost in the centerof the peninsula). This is the time when the first concentrated Muslimdwellings are seen in the peninsula. These Turkish tribes who migrated to the Balkan Peninsula were adheringto a breakaway sect of Islam known as dervish. They were persecutedby the mainstream Islamic sect, the sunnis, and thus forced to live.They came prior to the Ottoman invasions and their leader was Sari Sallteku. The well known historian, H. Inalcik, says that after much hardship,forty dervish Turkish families migrated to the Balkan Peninsulain 1261. However, they were alone. In 1291, a Muslim family from the Haleb ofSyria migrated and settled in Mlik, a village in Kosova. They were knownas the Al-Aga family and had a mosque built. This mosque is maybe the oldestin Kosova and still has the inscription of who built it and when. The Russian Czar Theofil, while fighting in the Asia Minor, forced manyMuslims to migrate. They settled in the Balkan Peninsula in the valleyof the Vardar River. They came to be known the "Turks of Vardar." But, the presence of the Muslims in the Balkan Peninsula was so greatthat the Christian kingdoms could no longer tolerate them. Thus, the manycrusades directed for the Middle East passed through the peninsula andliterally exterminated the Muslims living there. This happened in 13thcentury, and the Bulgarians and Serbs took great "pride" in defending Christianity.Hence, the great hate of the Slav against Muslims, and vice versa. Notes: 5. CONCLUSIONThis book is still short of a full-concluded research. However, it doesshed some light into the truth. The Muslims have been living in the BalkanPeninsula long before than it was previously believed. Their first tracesare to be found as far back as the 8th century. Their superior religious beliefs made the locals (the Balkan nations)embrace them openly. However, the short sighted and pragmatic politicsof the European Christian kingdoms, feeling that they were loosing ground,fought back—the foundation of the future European politics was laid down.We will never have such good and cordial relations between the Muslimsand the European countries anymore. The persecution that the Muslims suffered in the hand of the Christiansduring the 13th and 14th centuries made a great impacton the Balkan nations. This is the reason why we have such a rapid spreadingof Islam in the peninsula once the Ottoman armies conquered it in the 14thcentury. Hopefully this will be a kind of challenge for further and better researchin the future. BIBLIOGRAPHYAbdulati, H. (1995). Struktura familjare në islam. Shkup. Al-Hamawi, Y. (1906). Mujemu-l-Buldan. Cairo. Arnold, T. (1990). Povijest islama – historijski tokovi misije.Sarajevo. Asad, M. (1994). Islam na raspa?u. Zagreb. Asad. M. (1990). Put u Meku. Sarajevo. Azizusamed, U. (1992). Islami dhe krishterizmi. Prizren. Beci, B. (1994). Marrëdhëniet e hershme shqiptaro-sllave nëdritën e të dhënave të dialektologjisë sonëhistorike. In Shqiptarët e Maqedonisë, Shkup. Benkovi?, ?. (1982). Bogumilstvo i islamizacija. Argumenti, 2,p. 234. Christon, P. K. (1995, April 1). Dardania. Bujku, p. 7. Çabej, E. (1977). Studime gjuhësore. Prishtinë. Demiraj, S. (1994). Gjuhësi ballkanike. Shkup. Dessuki, M. K. (1976). Al-Dewletu-l-uthmaniyetu we-l-masaletu-sh-sharkiyah.Cairo. Dikëm, S. M. (1994). Studime mbi historinë e shtetit osman.Shkup. Djozo, H. (1976). Islam u vremenu. Sarajevo. Doçi, R. (1994). Iliro-shqiptarët dhe serbët nëKosovë. Prishtinë. Frashëri, S. (1989). Përhapja e islamizmit. Prizren. Gams, A. (1979). Biblija i društvo. Novi Sad. Gjini, G. (1986). Skopsko-Prizrenska biskupija kroz stole?a.Zagreb. Hadri, A. (1973). Historija e popullit shqiptar për shkollate mesme. Prishtinë. Had?ijahi?, M. (1977). Islam i muslimani u Bosni i Hercegovoni.Sarajevo. Had?ijahi?, M. (1982). Neki pojavni oblici islamiske civilizacije unas. Argumenti, 2, p. 212. Halili, A. (1995, November 13). Xhamia e Mlikut ndër më tëvjetrat në Kosovë. Bujku, p. 2. Hill, S. (1995, May 19). Aspekte të Shqipërisë mesjetarepara pushtimit turk. Bujku, p. 13. Ibrahimoviq, M. (1985). Veprimtaria detare tregtare e anijeve ulqinakegjatë shekullit XVII deri në fund të shekullit XIX. Koha,2, pp. 203-215. Imam Nawawi, Riyadu-s-Salihin. Shkup. Inalcik, H. (1995). Perandoria osmane, periudhe klasike 1300-1600.Shkup. Korkut, B. (1969). Arapski dokumenti u dr?avnom arkivu u Dubrovniku.Sarajevo. Krasniqi, M. (1994, July 16). Toleranca fetare – tipar i karakteritdhe traditës së shqiptarit. Bujku, p. 2. Mufaku, M. (1990). Shqiptarët në botën arabe: ShekulliXVIII – fillimi I shekullit XX. Prishtinë. Mawdudi, A. A. (1995). Sistemi i jetës në islam. Shkup. Nakvi, A. M. (1994). Islami dhe nacionalizmi. Tetovë. Petrovi?, E. (1964). Istoria poporuli romin oglindit in toponimie.Zagreb. Pirraku, M. (1991). Shkaqet e kalimit në islam të shqiptarëve.Përparimi, 2, p. 186. Qutb, S. (1993). Islami – fe e ardhmërisë. Shkup. Rexhepi, F. (1996). Kultura arabo-islame në Ballkan para ardhjessë turqve. Dituria islame, 76, p. 36. Rrahimi, S. (1969). Vilajeti i Kosovës më 1878-1912.Prishtinë. Rrahimi, S. (1986). Gjurmime historike të Rilindjes Kombëtare.Prishtinë. Sehug-Wille, C. (1978). Bizant i njegov svijet. Rijeka. Selman, E. S. (1984). El-istirab fi Yugoslafiya. Baghdad. Selmani, A. (1995, August 1). Shqiptarët e Egjiptit. Hënae re, p. 31. Selmani, A. (1994). Qytetërimet dhe gjeografija. Shkup. Seton-Watson, H. (1980). Nacije i dr?ave. Zagreb. Stipçeviq, A. (1990). Ilirët: Historija, jeta, kultura,dhe simbolet e kultit. Prishtinë. Šukri?, N. (1989). Povijest islamiske kulture i civilizacije.Sarajevo. Tërnava, M. (1995). Popullsia e Kosovës gjatë shekujveXIV-XVI. Prishtinë. Tur?inovi?, J. (1973). Katoli?ka crkva u ju?noslovenskim zemljana.Zagreb. ?ivojinovi?, M. (1980). Concerning Turkish assaults on Mount Athos inthe 14th century. Prilozi za orijentalnu filologiju,30, pp. 501-515. Ushaku, R. (1981). Kërkime filologjike. Prishtinë. ABOU THE AUTHORNexhat Ibrahimi was born in June 10, 1959, at Opojë of Prizren,Kosova. He is from a family with strong Islamic heritage. After finishinghis primary studies in his birthplace, he went to complete his secondarystudies in the "Alaudin" Medresa during the 1974-1979. He graduated fromthe Faculty of Islamic Theology, University of Sarajevo, in 1984. He was assigned to work at the Prizren regional office of the KosovaMuslim Community. Nexhat Ibrahimi has written a number a articles and books.His great intellectual activity was rewarded when his collegues electedhim as the Chairman of the Society of the Kosovar Muslim Scholars. Allthese activities have made the Serb government take action. He has been arrested several times, and presently is serving a prisonsentence. He is married and is the father of two children. geovisit();
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