| An Introduction to AnarchismAn Introduction to Anarchismby Liz A. HighleymanThis essay was written in 1988 by Liz for the Black RoseCollective in Boston, MA, and revised in 1995.What Is Anarchism?Anarchism is a political philosophy that is shrouded in misconception.This is largely due to the fact that anarchism is a truly diverse wayof thinking, one which cannot be characterized by simple slogans orparty lines. In fact, if you ask 10 anarchists for their descriptionof anarchism, you are likely to get 10 different answers. Anarchismis more than just a political philosophy; it is a way of life thatencompasses political, pragmatic and personal aspects.The basic tenet of anarchism is that hierarchical authority -- be itstate, church, patriarchy or economic elite -- is not onlyunnecessary, but is inherently detrimental to the maximization ofhuman potential. Anarchists generally believe that human beings arecapable of managing their own affairs on the basis of creativity,cooperation, and mutual respect. It is believed that power isinherently corrupting, and that authorities are inevitably moreconcerned with self-perpetuation and increasing their own power thanthey are with doing what is best for their constituents. Anarchistsgenerally maintain that ethics are a personal matter, and should bebased upon concern for others and the wellbeing of society, ratherthan upon laws imposed by a legal or religious authority (includingrevered laws such as the U.S. Constitution). Most anarchistphilosophies hold that individuals are responsibile for their ownbehavior. Paternalistic authorities foster a dehumanized mindset inwhich people expect elites to make decisions for them and meet theirneeds, rather than thinking and acting for themselves. When anauthority arrogates to itself the right to overrule the mostfundamental personal moral decisions, such as what is worth killing ordying for (as in military conscription or abortion), human freedom isimmeasurably diminished.Anarchists acknowledge the connection between various forms ofoppression -- including sexism, racism, heterosexism, classism, andnational chauvinism -- and recognize the futility of focusingopposition on one form of injustice while others continue to exist.Anarchists believe that the means one uses to transform the world mustbe in accord with the ends that one hopes to achieve. Whileanarchists disagree about strategies and tactics, including the needfor formal organizations and the use of violent action to overthrowexisting violent institutions, most agree that the focus must not beon merely destroying the current order, but on fashioning new, morehumane and more rational alternatives to take its place.Anarchists in HistoryAnarchists have played a part in revolutionary movements throughouthistory. The French Revolution begun in 1789 had a strongproto-anarchist element. Anarchists such as Pierre-Joseph Proudhon,Peter Kropotkin, Mikhail Bakunin, and Errico Malatesta played anessential part in the development of revolutionary anarchist theory inthe late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Anarchists playeda substantial role in the revolutionary movements in Russia in 1905and 1917, but were suppressed, often ruthlessly, once the Bolshevikshad consolidated power. The Spanish Revolution of 1936-1939 set thestage for the most widely known large-scale manifestation of anarchistpractice, in which anarcho-syndicalist organizations (the FAI and CNT)successfully created workable, non-hierarchical social and economicalternatives. In the United States, as well as in Mexico and LatinAmerica, there was an anarcho-syndicalist influence within the tradeunion movement (for example the Industrial Workers of the World).Prominent anarchists such as Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkmanparticipated in a variety of radical causes throughout the early1900s. There was a strong anarchist current in many of the socialchange and alternative lifestyle movements of the 1960s (includingparts of the feminist movement, the gay liberation movement and theanti-war and free speech movements), although in many cases these wereovershadowed, if not frankly repressed, by Marxist/Leninist/Maoistcurrents.What Anarchism Is Not In an effort to clarify what anarchism is, it is useful to examinewhat anarchism is not:Communism: While many anarchists value communalism and collectivism,anarchists reject the totalitarianism of the existing and recentlyfallen communist, or more accurately Marxist-Leninist, states. Therift between anarchists and Marxists developed as early as the 1870sas anarchists perceived that the Marxists were perpetuatingauthoritarianism under a different name. Marxist-Leninists groupshave traditionally emphasized the need for a vanguard party and thedictatorship of the proletariat, ideas which are fundamentally opposedto the anarchist focus on anti-authoritarianism and maximum individualfreedom. Although orthodox Marxism predicts that the state will"wither away" with time, we have repeatedly seen in communist regimesa consolidation of state power and its attendant repression andinsistence on conformity. Libertarianism: Libertarians are often confused with anarchists anddo, in fact, overlap in many respects. Both share an emphasis onindividual freedom and the desire to do away with the state. Manylibertarians assign primary importance to the individual and emphasizethe principle of enlightened self-interest. Many anarchists tend tofocus more on mutual aid and efforts to improve the circumstances ofall members of the community. Libertarianism is most oftencharacterized by its economic viewpoint, which places maximum value onunimpeded free market capitalism (some proponents call themselves"anarcho-capitalists"), condones the use of force in the defense ofprivate property, opposes any governmental interference that impedesefforts to maximize personal economic gain, and discounts values thatcan not be measured in economic (typically monetary) terms. Whilelibertarians are anti-state, they often are not opposed to dominationand hierarchy in all its forms (there is often a strain of "survivalof the fittest" or "[economic] might makes right" in the libertarianphilosophy), and do not seek to radically alter societal powerrelations, especially those based on economic power. Anarchists tendto have a more socialist perspective, and favor doing away with anysystem in which the wealthy can achieve disproportionate benefit whilethe less fortunate suffer undue hardship. While anarchists valueindividual initiative, intelligence, and creativity, it is recognizedthat those who possess such talents to a lesser degree should still betreated with respect and justice. Objectivists are an extremist typeof libertarian. The Libertarian Party is relatively moderate, andtends to focus on issues like electoral reform, abolishing drug laws,and reducing governmental regulation. Many libertarians are"minarchists" who believe that some form of government is necessarybut that it should be as minimal and unobtrusive as possible. Thequestion of what type of economic system would exist in an anarchistsociety is an open one. Some anarchists believe that all forms ofcapital and the market economy must be abolished, others favor asystem that promotes worker ownership and full participatory democracywithin a market economy, and still others believe that a variety ofeconomic systems can co-exist as long as they do not try to imposetheir systems and values on each other."Liberalism": The prevailing political notions in this country equateanarchism with leftism, and leftism with liberalism, but there arereal differences, both quantitative and qualitative. The idea of "theleft" is problematic in the 1990s, since much of modern politics tendsto fall outside the traditional left (liberal)/right (conservative)spectrum. Although most anarchists do support "progressive" causes,anarchism does not really have a place within the traditionalpolitical spectrum. Some theorists have proposed a matrix that looksat degree of economic authoritarianism and degree of socialauthoritarianism as two separate axis; often those who favor economicliberty oppose social liberty and vice versa. Much of modernprogressive politics is based on "identity politics," the idea thatone's primary concerns and alliances should be made on the basis ofrace, gender and/or sexual orientation. Although many anarchists areheavily invested in identity politics, a more comprehensive anarchistphilosophy looks forward to a time when people will not need to focusso much on such categorizations. While liberals tend to advocateefforts to reform the existing system (through such means as voting,lobbying, and organized demonstrating), anarchists have a more radicalview, and wish to replace corrupt institutions entirely, and refashiona more humane society by means of direct action, without reliance onany form of statist intervention. While anarchists generallyrecognize the validity of evolutionary as well as revolutionarychange, they acknowledge that in order to achieve a true reordering ofsociety it is necessary to eradicate hierarchical dominance relationswherever they exist; this has not historically been a priority ofliberals. Anarchists recognize that the structures of powerthemsleves (be they capitalist or communist, "democratic" ortotalitarian) are the root of the problem, and as such, cannot be thebasis for a solution. Although some anarchists engage in voting andorganized protest in the belief that even small localized improvementsare worthwhile, they recognize that such activities are merely interimsteps, which one must go beyond in order to achieve real and lastingchange. Nihilism: In contrast to the "anti-everything" credo of nihilism,anarchists do not promote random violence, destruction, and "every manfor himself" lawlessness (although there are always a few with thisphilosophy who call themselves "anarchists"). The common perceptionthat anarchy is equivalent to chaos is an unfortunate misconceptionarising from the widespread belief, instilled by those in power, thatauthority is necessary to maintain order. Anarchists believe that anefficient, organized, and just society can be achieved on anon-hierarchical, decentralized, and participatory basis.Some Issues of ContentionAnarchists hold disparate views on many issues. One of the majorareas of disagreement is the question of the individual versus thecommunity. Individualist anarchists place primary importance on thefreedom of the individual, while anarcho-communists (andanarcho-syndicalists) focus on the benefit of the social group atlarge, and mutualists lie somewhere in between. In an ideal anarchistsociety, it is hoped that the needs of the community as a whole can bemet in a just manner without unduly impinging on the free will andself-determination of the individuals within it.Another debate within the anarchist movement concerns the issues ofecology and technology. Classical anarchism displays similarities tothe traditional Marxian notions of the value of science andrationalism, and the belief that technological progress generallybenefits society. Many modern anarchists believe that technology isinherently neither good nor evil, but that it must be scrutinized andapplied in a socially responsible manner in order to best serve thosewho use it and are affected by it. Other contemporary anarchists havean anti-technology, ecology-centered perspective (the most extremebeing primitivists and neo-Luddites), and believe that an anarchistsociety can only be achieved by abandoning technological advances andreturning to a more primitive, localized and ecologically harmoniousway of life.The issue of nationalism is also important. In general, anarchistsadvocate the idea of internationalism (or rather, `no-nation'alism)and view nationalism and patriotism as manifestations of the state'sattempt to increase its power by promoting artificial divisions amongpeople. The nation-state is a construct that serves the interests ofvarious elites, while the lower strata of the population remains insimilar deplorable circumstances throughout the world. Despite this,some anarchists maintain that it is worthwhile to support certainnational liberation struggles (such as the efforts of the Palestiniansin the middle east, Black nationalists in the U.S., and oppressedindigenous peoples everywhere) in the belief that smaller independentnations, albeit authoritarian, are preferrable to exploitive,monolithic empires.Currents within the Modern Anarchist MovementToday's "anarchist movement" can more accurately be viewed as acollection of different movements that have various political andphilosophical features in common. Building on, and sometimesdiverging from, the principles of classical anarchism, there are avariety of groups that are enlarging the scope of contemporaryanarchism and redefining traditional notions of anarchy.Anarcha-feminists meld the ideals of feminism and anarchism.Anarcha-feminists focus on the liberation of women and the role of thepatriarchy more than classical anarchists, but not to the exclusion ofother forms of oppression (as some other types of feminism have done).Not all women anarchists consider themselves anarcha-feminists, normust an anarcha-feminist be female -- the distinction is largely amatter of how "woman-centered" one's values are and which aspects ofdomination are emphasized. As is the case with many present daypolitical movements, the issue of gender separatism remainsunresolved. On one hand, the perpetuation within the anarchistmovement of the same artificial gender divisions that have beenimposed by the hierarchical and patriarchal social order may beinimical to the creation of true equality and to the breaking down ofbarriers which anarchists hope to accomplish. On the other hand, manywomen feel the need to maintain a women's space within a movement thathas traditionally been male-dominated, and believe that the validityof women's concerns must be recognized and integrated into theanarchist philosophy before unity can be achieved. Anarcha-feministsgenerally reject statist solutions to women's problems (such as thecensorship of pornography in an attempt to reduce violence againstwomen) in favor of self-empowerment and direct action.Anarcha-feminist organizing can be characterized by an emphasis ondecentralization, participatory decision making and action on agrassroots level. Anarcha-feminists generally believe that thefulfillment of human potential can best be achieved by moving beyondtraditional gender roles and encouraging the development of beneficial"masculine" and "feminine" qualities in all people, and equality inall relationships.Many modern anarchists concentrate on applying the ideals of free willand self-determination to their personal lives. Within this tendencythere is an emphasis on the acceptance of a variety of options in therealm of sexuality, family, and interpersonalrelationships. Relationships should be based on the free choice andconsent of all individuals involved, and not constrained bygovernmental, religious or societal restrictions. There are manyqueer anarchists -- gay, lesbian, transgendered, and perhapsespecially bisexual; anarchism's promotion of the breakdown oftraditional categorization schemes seems particularly relevant tothose with non-traditional and/or marginalized sexual and genderidentities. As with feminists, some gay/lesbian/queer groups embraceanti-authoritarian principles and direct action (for example, AIDSactivists who organize underground needle exchange programs andbuyer's clubs for non-FDA-approved drugs). Recognizing thattraditional mandates such as marriage, the patriarchal nuclear family,and enforced reproduction have been devised to serve the interests ofthose in positions of power and authority, anarchists emphasize theexploration of creative, voluntary relationship alternatives such asnonmonogamy, extended families, and communal child rearing, inaddition to the more common traditional options. Anarchists generallywant to get government out of the business of approving personalrelationships, rather than extending such approval to same-sexrelationships. Anarchist queers also typically oppose efforts toincrease the gay presence in oppressive institutions such as themilitary.In contrast to classical anarchism's adherence to atheism (largely inresponse to the destructive influence of traditional authoritarianreligious institutions), many modern anarchists emphasizespirituality, both the neo-pagan variety and liberation theologywithin traditional religions. This reflects the belief that themaximization of human potential necessitates a recognition of thespiritual and transcendental aspects of human personality and cultureas well as the rational. In the realm of morality, such anarchistsrely on personal responsibility and concern for others rather than onthe pronouncements of legal or moral authorities. Spiritualanarchists generally emphasize the interconnectedness of all life, andtheir beliefs commonly coincide with those of ecologically oriented,nature-centered anarchists. Yet there remains a substantial atheistelement among anarchists who believe that the idea of "sacredness" anda reliance on a "higher order" reinforce traditional hierarchicalnotions and are inimical to the achievement of full human freedom.Anarchist ideals are often espoused by youth within the punk,alternative art, rave, "deadhead" and radical student cultures. Theseyoung people attempt to escape the injustice and alienation of life inthe prevailing consumer society by forming communities of resistancebased on direct action and means of self-reliance such as collectiveliving, squatting, info shops and the creation of economicalternatives such as food cooperatives and independent, non-corporatemusic production and distribution. While these young people acceptmany of the tenets of classical anarchism (although commonly not underthat label), they are typically more concerned with applying theprinciples of anti-authoritarianism and self-determination in apractical way to their resistance activities and their daily lives.Some contemporary anarchists, however, eschew such "lifestylism," andinstead focus on building more formalized groups and networks that canorganize for broader social change.Anarchists are involved with a wide array of publishing projects, frominformal one-time `zines to established newspapers and book publisherswith long histories. Anarchists are increasingly making use of theInternet and other means of electronic communication. The Internet hasoften been described as an example of anarchy in action, and it hasindeed grown and prospered with no central governmentalauthority. Electronic communications provide a way to transcendnational borders, and may minimize the importance of cultural barrierssuch as race and gender as well. However, there is a definite dangerthat increasing reliance on electronic communication will reinforceeconomic barriers, creating a society of information-age "haves" and"have nots." Anarchists have used electronic communication to planevents, spread important news items, and exchange information; thereare mailing lists and Usenet newsgroups devoted to anarchism andanti-authoritarianism, as well as more ambitious projects such as theSpunk Press electronic archives. Clearly governments fear the freedomof the net, and are increasing their efforts to crackdown on the freeflow of informations (in the guise of anti-obscenity andanti-terrorism). Other anarchists oppose electronic communications,both because they resist "mediated," non-face-to-face interaction andbecause of the detrimental environmental effects of technology.ConclusionIn summary, anarchism is a diverse, broadly defined philosphy that hasbeen adopted in one form or another by a wide range of individuals andgroups, many of whom do not explicitly label themselves as"anarchist." Anarchism can have relevance to all facets of one'sexistence. In emphasizing freedom, self-determination, personalresponsibility, direct action, and the creation of voluntary,cooperative alternatives, anarchism has the vision and the flexibilityto provide a viable way to transform one's own life, while working forthe radical and lasting social change that will transform the world. Liz A. Highleyman -- liz@black-rose.com Last updated: 10 July 1995 |
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