THE NAHMANS OF GERONA
THE NAHMANS OF GERONA
A Brief Introduction To Our History
SEAL OF
RABBI MOSES ben NAHMAN
Inscribed:
Rabbi Moses ben Nahman, of Gerona,
his soul is at peace. Hazak.
(Be Strong !)
Benjamin H. Nahman
Los Angeles
1990
A Brief Introduction To Our History
I do not think that anyone can properly go into any subject, let alone
that of one's historical roots without laying a foundation of the events
that would help in understanding and getting a feel for the period in which
they happened.
We Nahmans, proceeding from the oft told oral history handed down through
the generations from father to son, were the recipients of that history
from our father Haim Joseph Nahman. That we were skeptical is an understatement
but he was adamant and urged us to further inquiry. This is a humble compiling
of what I have learned.
The history of our people, the Sephardim, was told to us in bits and
pieces. No books were read to us about that history but the pride in our
heritage was imparted. Now there are books we can read.
Who Are The Sephardim?
There are a number of studies and more are continuing. Much of the history
was lost due to the confiscation and/or burning of the literary works of
the Jews of Spain before, during and after their expulsion from their homeland
in 1492. Some documents are being uncovered on an ongoing basis at Cathedral
archives in Spain.(1) In 1988, for instance, two volumes
of the history of the Jews of Gerona were printed with documentation from
the archives of the Cathedral of Gerona, in Catalonia, the birthplace of
our famous ancestor Rabbi Moses ben Nahman,
know as Ramban, Nahmanides, El Gerondi, or by his Catalan name Bonastrug
Da Porta. The inquiry continues in Gerona by Catalan historians and the
cleric Jaime de Casanova.
When Did The Jews Arrive In Spain?
How deep was the connection with the history and the development of
our former homeland from which stems our being called Sephardim? Sepharad
is the Hebrew word for the Iberian peninsula that encompasses Spain and
Portugal. For a long time it was believed that the Jews came to Spain with
or after the Moorish invasion in 700 . and such did occur as Jews from
North African communities settled in southern and central Spain after 700
. adding to the existing Jewish community already living there. It has
now been established that Jews lived in Spain long before the Visigoth
(Germanic) tribes invaded in 412 . Many historians go back to the time
of the Roman conquest and decipherable tombstone markers set the date as
the 1st Century at a minimum. Legend goes back to the Phoenician and even
to the temple times of King Solomon. We came to Spain not as invaders,
nor conquerors. We did not attempt to impose our religion or our will on
others. We lived peacefully with those who would permit it. We opposed
those who would not whether they were the Visigoths, the Moors or the French.
Suffice to say that the Sephardim had as much claim as any other inhabitants
to being Spaniards albeit of Hebraic persuasion.
Spain, along with many other countries, has had a history of invasions.
Being a peninsula, its territory was vulnerable from all sides. To its
eastern shores on the Mediterranean came, among others, the Greeks, Phoenicians
and Romans. From the north and west came the Celts, Visigoths and others,
all of whom founded cities and left colonies there. It took the Roman invasion
(218 bce) to occupy all of Spain. Rome was a colonizing empire which also
absorbed and Romanized its colonies utilizing local rulers. Rome gave Spain
its Latin alphabet and its Romance language base. There are two main regional
Romance languages: Castillian, Catalan. The non-Romance language is Basque
which is an old Iberian (Celtic) based language. Portuguese is the Romance
language of Portugal.
In Iberia (Spain and Portugal) human fossil remains date to 200,000
bce. Stone age paintings still exist (25,000 to 10,000 bce). Around 4000
bce evidence of agriculture and animal husbandry. 2500 bce mining and metallurgy
(copper, bronze, gold and silver). This civilization (around 2000 bce)
had a written language (as yet undeciphered) and Iberians plied the seas
of the Mediterranean and the west coast of Africa engaging in fishing and
trading.
The Phoenicians (Lebanon area) attracted by the metal making, coastal
fishing and agriculture invaded in 1100 bce and set up coastal cities (i.e.,
Cadiz, Malaga, etc.) followed by the Greeks (1000 bce), the Carthaginians
(600 bce) and the Romans in 200 bce.
In as much as up to 10% of Roman citizens were Jewish this undoubtedly
added to the Jewish population of Spain. Roman and Greek writings recount
that they found the Iberian cities well developed in the arts, music and
dance upon their invasion and colonization. Emperor Caracalla (212 ce)
granted citizenship to all people born in Roman provinces.
Christianity started to gain adherents among the Hispano-Romans. The
Iberian-born Roman ruler Theodosius I (379-395 ce) was converted to Christianity
and declared it the only acceptable religion to be tolerated.
The Visigoths (Germanic tribes) crossed the Alps, sacked Rome, crossed
the Pyrenees (in 409 ce) and soon were well entrenched in Northern Spain,
making a deal with the Romans. Thus Visigoth rule took over Iberia. The
Visigoths began to spread their Arian Christian religion (2)
which brought them into conflict with the Hispano-Roman Christians.
Desiring to unify their Spanish empire, King Recaredo (586-601 ) converted
to Roman Catholicism proclaiming it the official and only religion. Hence,
convert or lose citizenship which had been enjoyed by Hispano-Romans, regardless
of religion, Pagan, Jewish or Christian. In 710 there was a struggle over
succession to the crown. A duke was made king over the heir apparent, the
loser went to North Africa to enlist Moslem support for his "rightful"
succession. The Moors responded with an invasion thru Gibraltar and swept
up the peninsula. With only 20,000 men they defeated the Visigoths. The
Moors were greeted by the common populace, they freed the serfs from royal
oppression and stayed. Now Spain had three religions: Moslem, Christian
and Jewish. The Moors recognized Moses, Jesus and Mohammed as prophets.
The Jews smarting under (now Catholic) Visigoth oppression greeted the
Moors in Southern and Central Spain. With the break up of the Visigoth
empire, the Christian Kings (Asturias, Castile, Basque, Catalonia, Leon,
Aragon) established their control and independence. With the Moorish defeat
at Poitiers, France in 732 the reconquest started. Spain was divided into
South-central and Southern, under Moorish caliphs, and Catholic kingdoms
in the North and North-Central.
Except for the period of Almohade (Shiites) rule (1146-1212) of parts
of Moorish Spain, Moors, Christians and Jews lived in somewhat equal status.
The Almohades, religious fanatics were invited into Spain by the Caliphs
to help stem the reconquest by the Christian kings. The Almohades instituted
their own inquisition of Jews, Christians and Moslems who were "heretics"
according to Almohade religious fanaticism.
The fate of those of the Jewish faith varied under the Christian monarchs.
Some of these monarchs resisted the dictates of the church for their own
reasons: financial, need of the expertise of, utilization of the talents
of their Jewish subjects, or friendship, and so forth. These were more
tolerant. On the other hand, many used the Inquisition to further enrich
their treasuries by oppressive taxation and confiscation, and for religious
zeal. These rulers promulgated laws which relegated those Spaniards of
the Jewish faith to second class citizenship or worse. Moslems under Christian
rule were also persecuted and expelled.
Among the tolerant Christian Monarchs were Alphonso VI (1030-1109),
Ferdinand III (1199-1252), Jaime I (1208-1276), Alfonso VIII (1166-1214),
Alfonso X (1221-1284), Pedro I (1334-1369). Meanwhile the Papal order of
1250 declared: "They [the Jews] should not associate with Christians, live
under the same roof with them or use the same baths nor attend social or
religious events [weddings, Bar Mitzvahs, or circumcisions]. Also prohibited
is Jewish employment of Christians in their households." The ban indicates
that close relations between Jews and Christians existed prior to then.
Don Enriquez in his overthrow of King Pedro I brought in the "Knight Crusaders"
(French, German, English) who introduced their "expertise". They were already
known throughout Europe for pillage, arson, and massacre. Now the Inquisition
accelerated culminating in laws, confiscations and the Massacre of 1391
.
The Nahmans
The Nahmans came from Gerona in the (Catholic) kingdom of Catalonia,
north of its capitol of Barcelona. Gerona was occupied by the Moors for
only 40 years. The Nahman name can be traced back to Babylonia (Iraq- Iran
area) where a long list of rabbis by that name are found in Jewish history
dating back (as far as we have noted) to Jacob Ben Nahman (320 bce) and
Isaac Ben Nahman (356 bce). Rabbi Nahman was born in Gerona (Rabbi
Moses
Ben
Nahman
(RAMBAN), Nahmanides, Catalan name - Bonastrug Da Porta (1194-1270 ce).
He and his wife had three boys (Joseph, Solomon and Isaac) and daughters
(names not noted). One of the daughters married the next chief rabbi of
Gerona, Rabbi Gerson ben Salomon. Rabbi Nahman's cousin Jonah ben Abraham
Gerondi (1180-1263) was a noted Talmudist (Jewish law) and writer on ethical
matters. Rabbi Nahman's brother Benveniste da Porta was the Bayle of Barcelona.
Their maternal grandfather was the famous Rabbi Isaac ben Reuben of Barcelona.
To understand further the period, we must mention that before, during
and after Rabbi Nahman's time there were two main trends in Judaism. The
great Rabbi Moses ben Maimon (Maimonides, Rambam)
(1135-1204) is considered by all as a giant who modernized Jewish thought.
He reconciled theology with the "new" knowledge of the sciences. His was
a demystifying force. He opposed the literal interpretation of scripture
which was straight-jacketing knowledge, inquiry and understanding. His
writings were in the most simple language so that the masses could understand,
without the need of "interpretation" by the hierarchy who were the final
arbiters of religious disputes. Maimon was greatly influenced by Aristotle's
philosophy. Simply put his writings espoused a more "rational and philosophical"
approach as against the more orthodox "faith and tradition" mentality that
"all that is worth knowing can be found in the scriptures." Rabbi Nahman
(while praising and honoring R. Maimon) was essentially a faith and tradition
adherent. Rabbi Nahman opposed the Rabbinical zealots who urged the Catholic
Church to burn the "heretical" Maimonides' work. Rabbi Nahman wrote a treatise
against the book burning and against the postmortem "herem" (excommunication)
of Maimonides proposed by the Rabbinical zealots. The books were burned.
The Church then proceeded to burn all Talmuds (Holy Books) a few years
later.
Rabbi Nahman was a founder in Gerona of a school for the study of Cabala,
searching for mystical messages and meaning in the scripture. Rabbi Nahman
was a well respected leader of his community and of Jews everywhere. He
became the Chief Rabbi of the whole province of Catalonia. Rabbi Nahman
was appointed Bayle (leader of Gerona's Jewish Community) by King Jaime
I the King of Catalonia, Aragon and Sicily. The Jewish communities were
under the direct supervision of the monarchy. The community administered
its own laws and was exempt from local or clerical (Christian) interference.
It was answerable thru its Bayle directly to the King on all matters. Under
the Reign of Jaime I, the Jews of Catalonia prospered and their communities
grew. Rabbi Nahman was a physician(this earned him his living(3)
and he was the King's personal physician. He was a poet and a prolific
writer. Fifty books or works of Rabbi Nahman are still studied at all Hebrew
universities. His son Joseph became a landowner and an advisor to the King
of Castile in Valladolid. It is from this son that we believe our present
family descends in as much as the name Joseph (and not Isaac or Solomon)
is the name passed on from generation to generation to the present day.
In 1263 the church asked that Rabbi Nahman debate the Dominican Monk
Pablo Christiani, a converted Jew. The topic was "The Messiah's Coming
prophesied by the Bible has been fulfilled by the birth of Jesus." Rabbi
Nahman refused but when Jaime I gave his personal guarantee that Rabbi
Nahman would have freedom to debate, without consequence, Rabbi Nahman
agreed. When the debate ended, (which took place in Gerona and then Barcelona),
the King awarded him 300 Solidos (money). The Bishop of Gerona asked Rabbi
Nahman to write an account of his points of view on the debate which unfortunately
Rabbi Nahman did.
In 1265, prodded to do so by the Bishop of Gerona, Pope Clement IV sent
an order that Rabbi Nahman be tried for heresy. King Jaime I tried to get
the church to agree to a two year exile but the bishop insisted that Rabbi
Nahman be brought before the court of the Inquisition. Warned by King Jaime
I that he could not protect him, Rabbi Nahman left quickly for Palestine
where he continued to write and teach.
Arriving in Palestine he found that there was no Jewish Community except
for 2 cloth dyers who would assemble a "minyan" to hold Sabbath prayers
in their house. Rabbi Nahman immediately initiated the building of a Synagogue.
Funds and Torah Scrolls were sent for from the community of Catalonia.
This Synagogue was destroyed in 1560 by the Turkish invasion of Jerusalem.
He also formed a Yeshiva (school for religious studies) in Acre. He
stayed in Palestine waiting for a change that would permit his return to
Spain. He was never able to return to Spain or see his family. He died
in Palestine in 1270.
From Jerusalem Rabbi Nahman wrote in Catalan (his native language) this
letter to his family: "I left my family. I had to abandon my home. There
[in Gerona] with my dear sons and daughters, my beautiful grandchildren
who were educated at my knees, I left also my life. My heart and my eyes
will be with them forever." His seal was found near Acre a few years ago.
He is reputed to be buried at the foot of Mt. Carmel. We know of no Rabbis
among the Nahmans after Moses Ben Nahman.
On The Question Of "Debates"
It was a time honored mechanism for scholars, Jewish and otherwise,
to engage in debates on matters of religion, philosophy and opponents
were free to speak and of course each would try to prove the correctness
of their beliefs and win adherents to their point of view. These debates
were of a voluntary nature, and all the participants were expected to act
with decorum and all the courtesies were extended to the participants.
The onset of the reconquest of Spain from the Moors found the Catholic
church giving that endeavor a "crusading" aspect. While the reconquest
had its national goal of reunification of Spain into one state, the church
was determined not only to eject the " infidel" Moors but to impose their
religion, as the only one for all of Spain.
Proselytizing, (trying to convert) became in their hands not a debate
or contest for men's minds but a weapon by which to force their conversion.
The church made it mandatory for Jews to attend sermons where the clergy
would preach. They often used Jewish converts to deliver the sermons. It
also became the practice to invade Synagogs to use for these forced sermons.
When these sermons did not produce the desired result, they forced the
representatives of the Jewish religion (Rabbis) to enter into "debates"
with clerics of the Inquisition. What kind of a "debate" could there be,
if in defending their religious faith, they then could be charged with
"heresy". It was a no-win situation, yet, they were not allowed to refuse
to debate.
At the Nahman-Christiani debate in 1263 at least the presence of King
Jaime I (tho a Catholic monarch), did not allow a prejudgment and Rabbi
Nahman was permitted to speak freely. Further, while the King was unable
to convince the clergy and they appealed to the Pope for a trial, the King
tried to mitigate the punishment by proposing a 2 year exile.
This was not the case in Tortosa, the reconquest was in full swing,
and in 1412/1413 for an arduous 20 months (60 sessions) a "debate" was
ordered in which the renegade Geronimo "de Santa Fe" ("of the Holy Faith",
formerly Joshua Larki, converted Jew) was the cleric representing the church.
Four Rabbis defended the Jewish religion. Pope Benedict XII himself decided
to assist Geronimo in his attack. At the very first session, the Pope announced
that " this debate is not to be one among equals, but is being held to
prove the truth of Christianity". Further, the renegade Geronimo proclaimed
that the "Rabbis were heretics even to Judaism for which they would be
prosecuted by the Inquisition." Under these conditions what the Rabbis
said, or were allowed to say was to no avail. The campaign of forced conversions
and baptisms was accelerated and the Pope ordered the removal from the
Talmud of all the scripture to which Geronimo objected.
The time for "debating" was over. Now came the torture rack, "to encourage
confession." Now came the sword, "to liberate the soul." Now too came burning
alive at the stake, "to purify the soul." Expulsion was in the wind, and
it was not long in coming. All that was awaited was the completion of task
#1, the victory of the reconquest.
Some Facts About The Sephardim In Brief
In Spain it is estimated that there were 800,000 Jews including "conversos"
(converts to Christianity) before the expulsion. They represented one sixth
to one seventh of the population of Spain as a whole. As cruel as the expulsion
was for the Jews, it was a disaster for Spain which flourished under the
input of the combination of the culture, science, and enlightenment brought
to Spain by the Moors. The Jews were the catalyst. With their knowledge
of Arabic, Latin, Greek and the Spanish dialects, the Jews served as a
means for transmission of those cultures to Spain as a whole, expanding
and enriching their nation's knowledge.
Jews were farmers, vineyarders, silver and gold smiths, mathematicians,
astronomers, printers, cartographers (map makers), physicians, financiers,
traders (with contacts throughout the Mediterranean "Mare Sephardicum")
and in all the professions. The languages of the Jews were the Iberian
tongues, Spanish, Catalan, etc. and they employed Hebrew and Arabic along
with Greek and Latin in their writings. For Spain, the tenth century to
the early fourteenth century were indeed the golden age. The arts, finances,
trade, sciences, architecture, medicine, botany, pharmacology, astronomy,
cartography, poetry, etc. flourished. Greco-Arab science and literature
was absorbed as was Babylonian, Latin and others. These enriched the knowledge
of the day and laid the groundwork for a view of the world other than the
strict limitations of "all that is worth knowing is contained in the scriptures."
Europe was still in the "dark ages" which dominated Europe in that era.
The reconquest of Spain from the Moors was mounted from the northern
provinces under the Christian kings around 1131 and they reconquered all
Spain by 1490. The official inquisition with its court was created in 1215
and its purpose was manyfold i.e., "Defense of the Faith", conversion both
thru proselytizing as well as forced conversion (or death), taxation (including
non-Christians) to support the church, confiscation of properties and wealth,
etc. The ferocity of the Inquisition rose in direct proportion to the success
of the reconquest and its speed accelerated as the cities fell to it. The
citizenry of Christian Spain was heavily taxed to finance the reconquest
and this taxation heavily fell on the Jewish communities.
Large scale looting, killing, burning at the stake, confiscation, etc.,
at first were spontaneous (?) but became more and more organized under
the sanction, urging and then mandate of the clergy in an organized and
ever mounting drive leading to expulsion. The year 1391 (among many others)
stands out as infamous with whole cities being made "Judenrien" (to use
the Nazi term) - "Free of Jews." Gerona was one of these cities (1391).
Valladolid (1412), Toledo (1467), Seville (1481) were sites of major inquisitional
abuses culminating in the expulsion of all Jews who would not convert from
all of the Province of Andalusia in 1480. In the 8 years (1481-1489) in
Seville alone, 700 were burned alive, 5000 tortured and punished. One could
go on and on but suffice to say that Spain lost the flower of its citizenry
as a result of that policy. Disastrous as it was to its victims, Jews,
Moors and Converts, the Inquisition was a disaster for Spain as a nation
and greatly contributed to its early decline.
An Abbreviated List of Jewish Illumineries Of That Period
Yitsjak -( 4)Ambassador of Charlemagne (768-814).
Yehuda -(5) Ambassador of King Charles (The Bald)
(843-847).
Abu Chaprut (915-970) Visor to Califs (Moorish Potentates), Physician
to Califs, Pharmacologist, Financier and Diplomat.
Shemuel Hanaguid: (933-1056) Linguist, Poet, Author, Secretary to Visor
of Granada, Visor to King Habus (Granada), General of the Army of King
Babis (Habus' son).
Rabbi Shelomo Yitsjaki: (1040-1105) The famous
Talmudist known as RASHI.(6)
Moshe Ben Ezra (1055-1140) Poet, Liturgist, Elegist.
Abraham Ben Ezra (1092-?) Encyclopedist, philosopher, poet, astronomer,
mathematician.
Yitsak Alfasi (1013-1103) Noted Talmudist
Benjamin Tudela: (11??-1175) Geographer, travelled extensively in Europe,
Middle East, Balkans, etc. Wrote of his travels and observations. A source
book for historians, widely translated.
Abraham Ben Levi Ibn David (Ibn Daud): (1110-1180) Historian, Jewish
and Greek Philosopher, Physician, astronomer, poet. Versed in New Testament
and Koran. Preceded Maimonides in Aristotlean approach to religion arguing
that philosophy was not anti-faith.
Ibn Gabirol (1040-1110) Prolific poet, Litanist, Philosopher.
Yosef Ibn Ferrusel (10??-1108) Physician, and Minister to Alfonso VI.
Ferrusel was known as Cidellus.
Todres Abulafia (1247-1295) Prolific Poet (over 1000 poems in 3 volumes),
Anthologist
Yaakov Ben Anatoli: (1194-1285) Translator. Translated Aristotle and
Averroes from Arabic to Hebrew. Official translator for Emperor Frederico
II (Naples) to translate into Italian.
Yosef Ben Kimji: (1105-1170) Grammaticist (Hebrew), Lexographer noted
for systematizing and modernizing written Hebrew.
Yaakov Ibn Tibbon: (1230-1312) Mathematician, Physician, Astronomer,
Inventor of Astronomical Instruments (New Quadrant, etc.)
Samuel Abulafia: (1320-1361) Financier, Community leader, Philanthropist
(helped finance El Transito Synagogue, now Museum in Toledo), Treasurer
and advisor to King Pedro of Castile, Diplomat. Tortured and killed by
King Pedro; wealth confiscated.
Yitsak Abrabanel: (1437-1498) Minister of Finance under Alfonso V, King
of Portugal. Also Finance Minister under King Ferdinand. Exiled 1492. Prolific
writer on philosophical and religious matters.
Yehuda Abrabanel: (1460-1535) Famous Medical Physician and Philosopher.
Exiled 1492.
Abraham Zacuto: (14??-1522) Mathematician, astronomer and cartographer.,
Professor at University of Salamanca. Reputed to have drawn maps for Columbus'
journey. Exiled in 1492, he went to Portugal to advise the Court on astronomy.
Advisor to King Juan II, and his successor King Manuel. Advised court on
proposed Vasco de Gama Expedition. In 1497 Portugal expelled Jews, Zacuto
went to Turkey.
Menash Ben Israel: (1604-1657) Philosopher, Editor
Some of the Notable Converts of Choice (7)
In Religion:
Bishop Pablo de Santa Maria (Castile) (1350-1435), formerly Salamon
Halevi, Chief Rabbi of Burgos until 1390, wrote anti-Jewish Laws of Valladolid,
1412.
Diego Lainez: Friend of St. Ignatius of Loyola. He was Second in Command
of the Company of Jesus.
Thomas de Torquemada (1420-1498) Grand Inquisitor who condemned 8,800
Jews to be burned alive, 96,504 to be tortured to (or otherwise put to)
death.
Diego De Deza, Inquisitor General.
Joshua Larki aka Geronimo De Santa Fe (1412): Proselitizer, Inquisitor.
Pablo Christiani (see debate Nahman-Christiani).
Hernando del Talavera, Archbishop of Granada
In Literature XV Century:
Santa Maria y Cartagena, Caballeria, Santa Fe, Fernando de la Torre,
Juan de Baena, Alfonso de Zamora, Francisco Lopez de Villalobos
(According to some historians Cervantes descended from a Converso family).
In Finance:
Diego Arias Davila (Castile) (1350-1435), Luis de Santangel and Gabriel
Sanchez (Aragon). Santangel was the principal financier for Ferdinand and
Isabel.
Abraham Senior, Chief Rabbi of Segovia, considerably financed Ferdinand
& Isabel's reconquest campaign, later converted.
In Science:
Moses Sefardi became Pedro de Huesca: Astronomer, Mathematician, named
Physician to King Henry I of England.
Converts who became Saints
Santa Teresa of Avila
Saint John of God
Conversos (or descendants) In the Sixteenth Century
Ausias March, Poet of Valencia.
Juan Luis Vives, Philosopher, Grammerian, Lexicographer (whose entire
family was burned alive later by Inquisitors).
Hernando de Pulgar, Chronicler.
Bartolmeo de las Casas, Defender of the American Indians and historian
of the Indies.
Fernando de Rojas, Celebrated author "La Celestina", First Renaissance
literary work.
Mateo Aleman, Novelist
Luis de Leon, Humanist and Poet
Francisco de Vitoria, Jurist
Conversos Marry into Nobility
King Ferdinand's grandmother.
Zaportas married into Royal house of Aragon.
Sanchez married the Cavallerias.
Others: Santangel, Clementes, Villanovas, Coseons Espes, Enriquez, Lagunas,
Cardozas, etc. King Philip II who signed anti-semitic laws in 1556 (Descendent
of conversos).
"Up to 300,000 conversos remained in Spain at the time of the expulsion.
They constituted the educated urban bourgeoisie. The richer families married
with the Spanish (Christian) aristocracy and transmitted their blood line
to the royal family itself" (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1988).
Non-Jewish Institutions Fall to the Inquisition
The "illumanists", an order formed by Sister Isabel de la Cruz and consisting
mostly of conversos were eliminated in 1520. The "Erasmans" followers of
the humanist Erasmus who had powerful supporters in the court of Charles
I were annihilated or forced to flee Spain by 1530-1540.
The Columbus Voyage
To touch briefly on the Columbus voyage which took place at the very
moment that Jews were being herded to ports of debarkation for expulsion.
Spanish historians come down on both sides of the question as to whether
Cristobal Colon (Colombus)(8) was a crypto-Jew (Marrano
or Converso). Leaving that question aside, it is well documented that Jews
played a great role in the voyage to the "New World". To name some of them:
Luis Santangel: helped finance the voyage in great part.
Isaac Abravanel: helped finance the voyage in great part.
Abraham Zacuto: Cartographer and Teacher of Columbus
Josef Vecinho: made the nautical instruments used.
Gabriel Sanchez: Crown treasurer, who personally helped finance expedition.
Master Bernal: Ship's Surgeon on voyage.
Rodrigo de Triana, Ship's Physician.
Luis de Torres: Chief interpreter on voyage.
Seamen: Marco, Rodrigo Sanchez, Brothers de La Calle.
It is also a historical fact that many of the ordinary seamen were recruited
(?) from the prisons of Spain where victims of the Inquisition languished.
The Inquisition Fact or Fiction
There has been a tendency in the literature to describe the inquisition
in mitigating if not in apologetic terms. Some of the writers attempt to
portray that period as a campaign for "national identification", a struggle
to unify a fragmented geopolitical area into a nation. This apologia fails
to differentiate between " National" aspirations and the reality of events.
While the reconquest of Spain and its reunification into one entity
was a worthy goal, that this new nation found it necessary to use the goal
of "nationhood" to impose its religion on a minority has no more merit
than the original invasion that gave rise to the need for a "National Liberation"
movement.
In other words the usurping of power by an invading and occupying force
tries to impose upon the inhabitants its structures, governmental, legal,
cultural, religious, etc. Can a movement whose aim it is to expel the invader
and establish its hegemony over the liberated land then impose its power,
legal, governmental, religious, etc. without regard for all of the inhabitants?
If the change of power merely expresses the strength to do so then there
is no moral question involved. It is, merely, "might makes right." In that
case all the invaders of Spain were "right".
In the case of Spain (700-1492), the Moors invaded a country already
in the hands of the Visigoths, the current occupying power. Neither being
"invited in" nor that they ousted a prior occupier alters the fact that
the Moors were invaders. Now came the need to reconquer Spain from the
invader which lasted over a span of 700 years.
In the areas not invaded or only briefly held by the Moors, (Navarre,
Castile, Catalonia, Aragon, Galicia, and Asturias) the various small Christian
kingdoms fought among themselves in a struggle for power, territory or
wealth. While the position of the Catholic church was to impose itself
as the only religion, it was not in a position yet to impose on the independent
kingdoms its will. These various rulers for their own reasons felt that
they needed the support of all the population if they were to succeed in
unifying non-occupied Spain into one nation capable of the task of expelling
the invader.
In this unifying role (and royal self interest) they utilized the expertise
of their Spanish subjects without regard to their religion. Given the fact
that the Jews were multilingual (Spanish, Latin, Hebrew, Arabic, etc.)
they were of great use to the kings as emissaries to the Califs as well
as for their value as translators, medical practitioners, financiers, treasurers,
tax collectors and in the commercial life of the day. The Jews had contact
with their co-religionists throughout the Mediterranean and were therefore
of extreme value in the expansion of trade between the kingdoms and the
outside world.
In the mid 700's Charlemagne like his father before him (Catalonia being
under the rule of French kings) utilized the Jews of northern (French)
and southern (Spanish) Catalonia to carry out these tasks and rewarded
them with all the rights enjoyed by his most favored subjects. His nephew
Carlos (the Bald) had as one of his special advisors Judah Hebreo (Judacot).
The Catalonian royal house under the Count Berenguers united by marriage
to Aragon royalty and then united with the Castile/Leon kingdom. Together,
(and
on occasion with the Crusaders of Europe) by 1248, they had forced the
Moors back so that only the Moslem Kingdom of Granada was in Moorish hands.
It fell in 1490. This campaign of national reconquest brought under Spanish
rule a large population of Moslems, non-Spaniards (if they could be called
that after being in Spain for over 700 years.) They numbered some 30% of
the population. In addition to the Moslems, the Spanish Jews composed one
sixth to one seventh of the population of Spain in 1490.
Now for the first time in the history of the Iberian peninsula there
were two sovereign nations Spain and Portugal. Each was a united nation
as never before and each had armies second to none in the Mediterranean
area. When the Romans, the Visigoths or the Moors, (to name the last three)
invaded Spain, they did not expel the previous inhabitants. In the case
of Rome, it even extended citizenship to all the inhabitants. Invaders
they were, and they exploited all inhabitants for their own enrichment,
as all invaders and colonizers do.
With the rise to power of the Catholic church in Spain a new criteria
was added for citizenship. This new aspect surfaced first under the invading
Visigoth King Recaredo 586/601 . when he converted to Roman Catholicism
and proclaimed it to be the only acceptable religion for all Spain. This
new criteria was continued and expanded by Christian Spain in its campaign
of reconquest after the Moorish invasion and occupation. Thus in no case
was the reason "national", the common denominator, used by both invader
and invaded, was Roman Catholicism. This was true not only in Spain but
throughout Europe and later expanded into the "New World", the Americas,
and the near and Far East, however, let us dwell on Spain for the moment.
When there was a need, the Catholic kingdoms utilized the expertise
of the Jews 700/1100 ., and of both the Moors and the Jews, 1100/1490 .
Tho the church invoked and instigated harsh measures, confiscations, forced
conversions and massacres in those years, where the various Kings opposed
them, the church used the ex-officio incitation of the Catholic populace
to carry out their work. This was especially true during the various plagues,
and "holy" holidays such as Resurrection day, Passover, and any other event
that came to hand which could be used for that purpose.
In 1490, with the reconquest successfully completed, the Catholic church
thru Ferdinand and Isabella and especially Isabella, whose Father Confessor
was the Grand Inquisitor Torquemada, the time had come. Jews (and later
Moors) were ordered expelled in 1492. Well, now the problem was over! The
nation now consisted of only Catholic Spaniards! Ah, but now, the matter
of the religious "purity" of the nation's citizens came into question.
Sound familiar?
The Inquisition was now aimed at all "new Christians", or their descendants,
and the terror continued if not accelerated. Nor did it stop with these
new victims, but was followed by the hunt for "heretics" among the Catholic
Orders. The Erasmians, Humanists, and others whose ideas did not conform
to the current dogma, came under the Inquisitorial attack. What was "national"
about that, let alone "liberation"?
With all of Spain united, purified and sanctified, what now? Catalonia
and the Basque country lost their independence and even their languages
were outlawed (Basque being the only real Iberian language, pre-Romanization,
and therefore the only "national" one). So much for the contention that
in Spain the inquisition was used due to the desire and need to establish
the "Nation". To further debunk that claim, no one was disputing the need
for national sovereignty, certainly even less so the Spaniards of the Jewish
faith who had fled the Almohade invasion. These Spanish Jews were given
refuge in the north where their co-religionists in the Catholic kingdoms
used their high positions to help them flee the oppressive, fanatical Almohades.
Taking refuge in the north, principally Catalonia, they lent their efforts
and finances to the Reconquest.
Now let us proceed from 1492. Having just consolidated Iberia, both
Spain and later Portugal, embarked on their expeditions, "discovered" the
new world, and (as the Roman Empire had done to Spain), imposed their language,
customs and administration on the conquered territories. Hispanizing wherever
they went, this was a new type of colonization. In Spanish history no invading
power had imposed its religion on Spain. These invading colonizers were
now "Crusaders". As a religious rather than a secular state, the aim now
was to mask pure imperial greed with the "holy" task of forcibly converting
the natives to " the faith".
Practice Makes Perfect
What the church had learned in its Reconquest phase it now applied with
a vengeance to the "new world", first to the natives, but quickly also
to the settlers from Spain, many of whom were "new Christians." If the
Inquisition was for Spain, as the apologists would have us believe, a necessary
part of the struggle to unify and establish a National Spanish State,(even
if one would accept that proposition), why did not the Inquisition expire
with the formation of that state or shortly thereafter? The fact is that
the Inquisition was part and parcel of the campaign to spread the power
of Roman Catholicism everywhere possible.
In The Beginning
In the early days of the founding of the Christian religion, the followers
of Christ were asked to "spread the good news of the coming of the Messiah."
This was to usher in "the Brotherhood of Man, under the Fatherhood of God."
With the growth and advance of Christianity, a more humane element entered
into the relations of man to man. The spread of the Christian religion
met the strength of the Roman Empire and despite the brutal attempts at
suppression, it persevered and spread. In 64 . a fire all but destroyed
Rome. Emperor Nero used this event to kill "vast multitudes" (Encyclopaedia
Britannica) of Christians as scapegoats, much as Christians killed the
Jews of Spain in the massacre of 1391 . when they blamed the Jews for the
`Black Plague' that swept Europe. With the conversion of Britain in 312
. and his being declared Emperor in 324 and establishing Christianity in
Constantinople, in 330 ., Emperor Constantine had successfully wedded church
to Empire. This institutionalizing of the Catholic religion now
put it in position to impose rather than win adherents to its ranks.
Spain and the Inquisition
"Spain has been treated as a pariah by European nations and others whose
own histories are no better....The Inquisition was not a 'Spanish' institution
conceived by the 'Spanish' church." "Pope Gregory IX founded the Courts
of the Inquisition to hunt down 'Christian heretics' in Southern France
two centuries before it was used against the Jews of Spain." (9}
Nor was the "Parche" (distinctive clothing, colors or colored insignia)
used to identify non-Christians, a "Spanish" invention. It and all the
trappings of the Inquisition were part and parcel of the then European
disease of Anti-semitism and an organic part of Medieval Catholic orthodoxy.
While we deal here with the aspects of its use against the Jews of Spain,
it must be remembered that it was used against Christian "heretics" and
converts before and after the expulsion of the Jews.
All those who possess the "only truth", all orthodoxies
are bound to become "Inquisitors" and hunt down their own "heretics."
While 1492 is the date of the "final" expulsion from Spain, it should
be remembered that the inquisition extended over a long period from its
"official" promulgation at the Council of Lateran (1215) nor was it used
only in Spain. The periodic pogroms that followed it (especially 1391)
were preceded by the "First Crusade" (1069-1099) with forced conversions
of Jews in Rouen and Metz, France (1171); in Blois, France 31 Jews including
women and children were burned at the stake (1190); total extermination
of Jews in Champagne, Fr. (1190).
Nor did it end in 1492, it took on a "new look" and was extended into
a hunt within the ranks of Jews who converted and their descendants, "Conversos",
"Marranos", "Nuevo (new) Christianos." To note some of them: in Lisbon
(1506) 2000-4000 killed. From 1497 to 1791 (when the inquisitorial court
was abolished in Portugal) more that 40,000 were put on trial, 29,000 reaffirmed
their baptism, 600 were burned in effigy (having fled); 1200 burned at
the stake. In England, Portuguese exiles who escaped the 1492-1497 Inquisition
were exiled a second time by England's edict in 1609. This was not the
first instance of anti-semitism in Britain. After the invasion of William
the Conqueror in the 12th century, Jews from France came to England. Under
Steven I (1135-1159) French ruler of the British Isles,. the Pogroms started:
Burning of the Jewish ghetto in Oxford (1141). Under Richard the "Lion"
Hearted (born in "Leon", Spain) the burning of the London Ghetto in 1189
resulted in forced baptisms and many deaths. Then followed the cities of
Norwich, Stanford, and York among others. At York (1190) the Knights of
the Crusades committed the worst 2 day massacre Then in 1218, the York
Jewish Quarter was sacked. This spread to 25 other cities from 1234 to
1253. In 1263-1265 all records of debts owed to Jews were destroyed. Jewish
areas in London and 7 other cities were looted with violence upon their
inhabitants. Crusaders under Simone de Monfort expelled the Jews from Leicester.
Except for isolated cases, Britain was "Juden-Rien" (free of Jews) from
1290 to 1651. In 1651 under Cromwell, Holland-English rivalry reversed
the expulsion edict and Jews resettled in England.
An Attempt At Rewriting History.
There has been a many pronged attempt at offering an apologia for the
inquisition and rewriting its history, if not completely ignoring its existence.
For an outrageous example I would recommend the entry in the Encyclopaedia
Britannica under Inquisition.
Inquisition: "On admission or conviction of guilt...sentenced...to penalties
ranging from simple prayer, fasting, to confiscation of property...even
life imprisonment....[For non confessors] turned over to secular arm, which
alone could impose death penalty....the first Grand Inquisitor...Torquemada...number
of burnings ...exaggerated...probably about 2000." These are the harshest
words in the one and one half column entry. There is no mention of any
other, of the many inquisitors except Torquemada.
As for the one and a half columns, lest one think that the reason is
`space limitation', on the same page we find this entry on Insects. Insects:
"A brief treatment ...for full treatment, see Macropedia." This "brief
treatment" consists of three columns.
Now as for Torquemada. Nissim Elnecave (see bibliography) states. "Contemporary
authors, basing themselves on documents of the period, estimate that Torquemada
condemned 8,800 'heretics' to be burned alive and 96,504 to be tortured
or otherwise put to death," (other than burning).
The Encyclopaedia only listed Torquemada (1420/1498) who was
made Grand Inquisitor in 1482. He held the post for only 16 years out of
the period of the Inquisition 1215/1791. Nor is mention made of the "unofficial"
killing and pillages, etc. as a result of the establishment of the inquisition
(1215) and Pope Gregory IX in 1233 called for "more vigorous action", and
that Pope Sixtus IV in 1478 "authorized torture" in order to carry out
that task.
Just one example (partial listing): In the year 1348 the `black plague'
hit Spain. The Jews were blamed.
1348-Terragona: 300 massacred.
1368-Toledo: 8000 massacred; Population 40,000.
1391-Valencia: 230 massacred; July 9th.
1391-Balleric Isles: 300+ massacred; (Mallorca, Minorca). July 10th.
1391-Barcelona: 400+ massacred; Aug 5th.
1391-Gerona: almost all massacred; Aug 10th.
1391-Lerida: 25 massacred.
1391-Cordoba: almost all massacred.
1391-Seville: almost all massacred.
1391-Madrid: major part massacred.
1391-Toledo: 1200 massacred.
The record must be set straight. The Inquisition must not be allowed
to be swept under the rug. Elsewhere I deal somewhat with its non-Spanish
application.(Note that the Encyclopaedia only mentioned Spain). The Church
was guilty of attempted genocide no less than that of the Holocaust of
Hitler Germany. It had nothing to do with "Nationhood".
Trials by Inquisitors Instituted in the New World
Argentina: By late 1600's 25% of the population were Jewish (including
Marranos) but they ceased to be so designated by the government.
Brazil: tens of thousands of Jews and converts arrived after
conquest by Portugal in 1500. Santo Tomas Island was used for Inquisition
deportees (and criminals) from Portugal. In 1542 Pope Paul III created
an inquisitorial court to combat "heresy." In 1557, hundreds were returned
to Portugal to be tried and were sentenced to life imprisonment or burning.
By 1648 the number rose to 25,000 of whom more than 1500 were burned alive.
The inquisition was ended in 1773.
Peru: Peru was founded as a possession in 1560 by Pizzaro after
the conquest of the Incan Nation. The Inquisition was off to a slow start
due to the small number of Marranos in Peru. From 1595-1605, 52 people
were brought before the Inquisitional Court. Of these, 15 were sentenced
to be burned alive. For 15 to 20 years thereafter, the inquisition rested.
The colony grew as "new (Jewish) Christians" from Portugal arrived. In
1634, 65 were brought before the Inquisitors. Sixty three were found guilty,
11 of them were burned alive and 2 in effigy. After 3 cases of false accusations,
and the execution of wealthy socially prominent personages between 1720
and 1745, the uproar forced changes in the courts of the Inquisitors and
its demise.
Mexico: here as in many other Latin-American countries the Inquisitors
operated in a much more fanatic way. Even Hernando-Alonso (who was an active
participant in founding Mexico City) fell to the Inquisition as a heretic
and was burned alive in 1528. Along with him, Morales was also burned alive.
As in Spain, one of the chief inquisitors used by the church was Vincente
de Santa Maria (1525) himself a descendent of Jewish heritage. In 1596
the famous Carvajal family of 6 were burned alive. Pogroms and auto-de-fes
took place in 1642, 1646, 1647, 1648 and especially April 11th, 1649. It
must be emphasized that all this took place against converts (or their
descendants) who may or may not have been secretly practicing their "old
religion." Denouncement or suspicion was enough. (10)
The Nahmans, Spain to America
Sicily: The Kingdom of Catalonia-Aragon annexed Sicily as well
as Sardinia in 1282. They remained under Spanish control until 1648. We
do not know much, as yet, about the Nahmans between 1270 (Rabbi Nahman's
death) and approximately 1850 when our great grandfather Haim Nahman came
to Salonica from Sicily. The community of Jews of Valladolid and Gerona
were virtually wiped out in the 1391 massacres, therefore one can assume
that sometime between 1270 and before 1391 the Nahmans left Spain and were
established in or around the Sardinian, Naples, Sicily area. It is known
that in 1312 Frederico II changed the laws and permitted Jews to escape
the confines of the ghetto in Palermo, Sicily and the Jewish communities
grew.
In 1450 Alfonso V broadened the rights of Jews allowing schools, synagogues,
living outside ghettos and prohibited Christians from proselytizing Jews
with forced attendance. Large numbers of refugees from Spain and Provence,
France settled in Sicily only to be followed by the 1492 order of expulsion.
Later the Jews of Naples which came under Spanish rule (1503) were included
in the expulsion order.
An exception was made for 200 wealthy families who agreed to pay an
annual fee of 300 gold Ducats to the Crown. By 1520 this grew to 600 families.
In 1541 Carlos V ordered total expulsion. Where does that leave the Nahmans?
We don't know. While our Great-Grandpa Haim came to Salonica from Sicily,
we don't know from what city in Sicily, nor how they escaped the expulsion
order in prior years. Further, the oral history passed down tells us that
the Nahmans owned "an island" where they felled the trees and made charcoal
which they then shipped (in their own ships) and sold to markets, one of
which was Salonica. It may well be that the "island" was one of the many
small sparsely inhabited isles of the Sicilian coast, while the family
may have lived on Sicily proper. To conjecture further, it is documented
that Joseph Nahman of Valladolid (1270), son of Rabbi Nahman was a wealthy
landowner and adviser to the King of Castile, perhaps with his influence
and funds he or his descendants were able to establish the family in Sicily
and/or smaller islands and remain free of harassment, being part of the
200 families exempted from expulsion. Perhaps some day one of our descendants
will fill in the gaps by further research if they are so inclined.
Our Gerona History Updated
Gerona 700 ce: The church eager to acquire the land of some of the Jewish
farmers who lived outside old Gerona sold twenty four houses to the Jews
and they moved into the Kahal or Jewish Call within the old Iberian-Roman
walled city of Gerona. They numbered some 300 people and they built their
community around their Synagogue, public market, public baths in the Roman
style, and ritual slaughterhouses and shops. The Jews built the first public
market which became the commercial center for Gerona and surrounding area.
A group of Catalans (historians, a priest, writers, a chemist, and not
so amateur archaeologists) are researching the history of Gerona's former
Jewish community. Among those aiding in restoration is a priest Jaime De
Casanova. His writings and studies are bringing to light old records, maps,
and descriptions of Gerona from 700 . to the present. As a source of historical
material the writer and researcher Luis Marcos has been invaluable. He
is the author of the book The Jews and Us, the Us being the Catalans.
How Rabbi Nahman's House was Discovered and Rebuilt
Senor Tarres and his French born wife Pia purchased the house at Number
5 on San Lourenc Street together with a friend says Senor Tarres"when I
was a child I used to play through the remnants of these ruined houses
and peering through a hole in a wall I discovered what was later to turn
out to be the garden and center of Nahmanides . When we started to clear
out the foundation with its centuries of dirt, stone, and debris of former
houses on that site, we suddenly ran into huge archways composed of stone
and blocked off." San Lourenc is a stone stepped narrow street running
downward between Doctor De Prat and Forca Street.(11)
There are many entrances into the Nahman Center. "From old maps and descriptions
in town and church records, we were able to determine that the house on
the corner was the site of Rabbi Nahman's house."
Discovery followed excavation and further excavation followed discovery.
Two levels down have been excavated and there is concrete evidence that
at least one or possible two more levels are yet to be uncovered. Using
stone and artifacts uncovered by excavating, Rabbi Nahman's house is rebuilt
around a patio. It contains, in addition to living quarters, a Yeshiva
or school, and one level down from the street there has been found a Mikvah
or ritual bath. A slaughtering stone for Kosher slaughtering of animals
has been excavated in the other building of the complex erroneously named
"Issac The Blind" House. To the rear of the house is a garden with two
wells encased by a wall which has high windows. It was from one of these
windows that an old sealed off street was discovered still unopened. At
one end of the garden there is a sealed archway which if opened would lead
in the direction of Forca Street. "We knew" continued Senor Tarres "when
we saw the buried arches in the cellar or below ground of our original
diggings that we had uncovered something of great importance. Not only
for us, not only for Gerona, not only for the Jews but for Catalonia, for
Spain and for history."
Unsupported by funds or city/government assistance, he dug, he spent,
and he became more enthused as his historian friends told him "the history
of the Jews is the history of Catalonia and all Spain, and Spain's history
is the history of the Jews." They added "the history of Nahmanides is one
of the important parts of the history of the Jewish community of Gerona
from before 700 . to 1492 the year of their expulsion." It was at this
point in his account of the history of his excavations that he turned to
Sam Nahman and emotionally said "do you realize that you and your sisters
are the first Nahmans to come back to Gerona since 1492? Esta es su casa."
"This is your house", he said in the traditional Spanish greeting used
when visiting a Spaniard's home. In this case Senor Tarres and his gracious
wife Pia meant it doubly, as a traditional offering of hospitality and
a deeper meaning since it was Nahmans coming to a Nahman house for the
first time since the expulsion.
In 1987 the City of Gerona enlightened to the importance both historically
and for tourism, purchased the property from Senor Tarres. It is now a
historical monument. A main street of Gerona bears the Catalan name of
Rabbi Nahman "Bonastrug da Porta". Isaac Nahman's house (his youngest son)
is a block away from Rabbi Nahman's and has been owned for the past 300
years by the present occupants family. Their name curiously enough is Porta.
This house has two floors below ground excavated by Senor Porta (12)and
a half buried arch indicates another level still lies buried awaiting excavation.
We await with great interest further archaeological and historical data
from Gerona.
Some Personal Notes
Grandpa Joseph and Grandma Jentile had six boys: Haim, Samuel, Albert,
Jack, David, and Ralph and one girl Vida (Life).
Our father Haim Joseph Nahman (1887-1982) was the oldest. Papa spoke
and read English, Spanish, Italian, French, Greek, Turkish, and Hebrew.
He was an avid reader and free thinker. When his father's business faltered,
his father attempted to enroll him for higher education at the Alianza
Frances School (a free school set up in Salonica by Baron Hirsch). His
father was told "What? A Nahman coming to a free school? Your family can
afford to pay." Alas, Grandpa Joseph couldn't and Papa was apprenticed
as a maker of shoes to his uncle. His apprenticeship over, he opened his
own shop at thirteen years of age. His brother Sam was killed in the Turkish
Army and Haim and younger brother Albert left in 1911 for the United States.(13)
He married Jentil (Jenny) Soulam, opened a quick lunch restaurant on Wall
Street amassing enough money to bring his whole family to America. Six
in all, and all at once. His brother Albert disappeared in the United States
soon after arriving. Grieving the death of his brother Sam, he named his
first son Samuel instead of Joseph. His second son was named after Jenny's
father Benjamin. Delicia (Sara) was named after Jenny's mother.
On the maternal side of Haim Joseph Nahman, are the Ben-Natans. This
is also an old Sephardic name with many notable ones however we never knew
too much about them. Haim married our mother - Jenny Soulam (1897-1981).
One Soulam that we find is Sara Soulam noted poetess in Venice, Italy in
the 1800's. We do not know if Italy is where that side of the family comes
from. The Soulams in Salonica were singers and musicians. Jenny's mother's
side were Arditti's; The Arditti name goes back to (bce). Babylonian times.
Moise Soulam, Jenny's brother, was a printer, writer and editor. He was
editor and co-owner of the last Sephardic U.S. Weekly, a satirical newspaper
called "La Vara" (The rod or the stick) which was printed using Hebrew
characters to be read in Ladino (the normal manner in which Ladino is written).
The children of Haim Joseph Nahman and Jentil (Soulam) Nahman were Perla
(Eda), Delicia (Sara), Samuel (aka Manny), Benjamin, and Esterina (Esther).
Both the Arditti and Soulam names are to be found in the Catalonian archives.
Our Ladino Language
Ladino (Judeo/Spanish) is the language common to most Sephardics whose
roots hark back to Spain. It was and is used in Sephardic communities wherever
they exist. It is written in both Hebrew characters and phonetically using
the Roman alphabet. What is Ladino? Again let us set the historical background.
In Spain, in Roman-Iberian times, the Jews spoke the local languages and
Hebrew. With the Moorish invasion, and influx of North African and Middle
East Jews to Spain, Arabic became along with Hebrew, the languages in use,
with Latin and Greek used in scholarly works. In Christian Spain (Catalonia,
Aragon, Castile, Navarre etc.) Spanish or the provincial languages, Basque,
Catalan were in use, along with Latin for official writings. For example:
700/1490 . In Moorish Occupied Spain: Arabic was the language in use
by all the inhabitants. Jewish translators were constantly at work translating
Jewish works from Arabic into Hebrew.
700/1000 . In Christian Spain: In areas not conquered or only shortly
held by the Moors, Spanish and the regional languages were in common use
by all the inhabitants while Latin was in religious and official use. Here
also Jewish works were being translated from Arabic to Hebrew.
1000/1490 The reconquest: As the Christian reconquest advanced into
Moorish Spain, Spanish, and (toward the end) under Ferdinand & Isabella,
"Castillian" Spanish became the language of all including the Mozarabes
(Hispano-Romans who did not convert to Islam), the Mullwallads (those who
did convert) the Jews and the Moors who now came under Christian rule.
That Spanish and not (yet) Ladino was the language of the Jews is shown
by the writing in Spanish in Constantinople in 1564 tho that community
had no contact with Spain. Later in 1688 Amsterdam, the Sephardics were
writing in Castillian because that community did have contact with Spain.
Therefore, even 200 years after the expulsion, descendants were writing
and speaking Spanish not Ladino.
So, what is Ladino ? It is Spanish of its epoch, 700/1600 . cut off
from the normal developmental changes that take place over time. A new
factor now entered. The language was influenced by the coming together
of those from different regions (Portugal, Catalonia, southern France,
Italy, and the islands of Spain and Italy etc.). These Sephardim were now
centered in the Middle East,(Turkey, Greece Syria) the Balkans, (Yugoslavia,
Bulgaria, etc.) and North Africa, Egypt, Morocco, etc.) as well as Palestine,
Lebanon etc. these communities maintained contact with each other. The
Spanish language they brought with them then began in 1600/1900, to be
influenced by the countries in which they now lived. Thus, in addition
to Hebrew, Portuguese, French, Turkish, and Greek, etc. words were incorporated
into Ladino. However, the base of Ladino in its majority is old Spanish,
tho many words, pronunciation and grammar may no longer be in use in modern
Spanish due to its progression over the centuries to its present form.
A humorous example: A few years ago my friend Bob Lopez and I were in
the Anthropological Museum in Mexico City. We were looking at a letter
from Hernando Cortez to the crown telling of his " new world" discoveries.
It was untranslatable, full of words with X, EIS, Eix and many words unknown
to us. One word caught my eye and I then read the letter to him using my
Ladino to decipher it. Example: Document- deixamos. Modern-dejamos. Ladino-
deshamos. Thus, when I used Ladino pronunciation,(i.e. eix= esh), ignoring
spelling or grammar, I could read and translate that letter.
A FEW LADINO WORDS AND THEIR ORIGIN.
Old Spanish ModernSpanish Ladino English
Aldikera Bolsillo Aldikera Pocket
Amatar Pagar Amatar Turn off (lights)
Ajuntar Unir Adzuntar Collect, gather
Furaco Hoyo Burako Hole
Atabafar Asfixiar Atabafar Asphyxiate
Hebrew/Ladino Spanish English
Mazal Suerte Luck
Batal Haragan Idle
Jajam Rabino,Sabio Rabbi
Sedaka Limosna Charity
Ladino/Italian Spanish English
Adzhenoio Rodilla Knee
Kualunke Cualquiera Whomever
Lavoro Trabajo Work
Achetar Acceptar Accept
Pishar Urinar Urinate
Ladino/Portugese Spanish English
Avagar Despacio Slowly
Preto Negro Black
Piron Tenedor Fork
Ladino/Turkish Spanish English
Buyurun Bienvenido Welcome
Charshi Mercado Market
Mashala (14) Que Bien Congratulations
Furcha Cepillo Brush
Chukal Bacinilla Bedpan
ON NAMES
To clear up a matter which has led to many discussions with those who
say that Jewish lineage cannot be traced because Jews used only first names,
hence, no lineage. This does not happen to correspond with the facts. Documentation
shows that the Sephardim had family names and this dates back to bce. It
is a fact that some names underwent a change under the impact of the persecution
before and during the inquisition. Thus we find some Iberofied names, Castro,
Franco, Esfuerzas, Cardoza etc. and those taken from the names of cities
Toledo, Toledano, Catalano, Leon etc. The taking of the names of their
trade as family names was not a practice among the Sephardics. Names now
common among the Sephardics are the same names we find in the history of
the Spanish Jews 700/1492 both in our literature as well as in the archives
and documents both of the inquisition as well as royal records.
As late as Oct 1989 in an article of an interview with the director
of the Jewish Genealogical Society of Los Angeles appearing in the L.A.
Times, the director states: "Jewish" Genealogy is hard to trace because
until 200 years ago Jews did not use family names. He may be referring
to Ashkenazics but then why say "Jews did not" ABSOLUTE NONSENSE..
What's in a Name?
SEPHARDIM: While Sepharad means Spain in Hebrew, the term
Sephardim
encompasses all of the Jewish people who follow the Sephardic rites. Only
a small percentage of Sephardics are descendants of those who lived in
Spain. While Spanish Jews refer to themselves as Sephardim we also refer
to ourselves as Spanish Jews. Greek, Italian, Moroccan, Yemenite, etc.,
Sephardics have lived in their respective countries (some dating
back to B.C.) usually speaking the language (or a dialect of the language)
of their country and their customs and culture in the main are native to
those countries. The one exception among all Jews are those pertaining
to our religious practice, (with some differences.)
After 1492 as the Spanish Jews were dispersed to many lands, the local
Jews of those countries where they went were attracted to the highly cultured
and upbeat lifestyle of the Spanish Jews and sometimes adopted it as their
own (including in some cases Ladino).
ASHKENAZIM: With the Roman Empire in the Saar and Rhine valleys
there arose a Romanized Jewish language. Thereafter with the Germanic invasion
and its influence this language became the base of the Yiddish language.
Still later, migrations (mostly forced) took these Germanic speaking Jews
to the Baltics, Balkans, Poland, and Russia, etc. These Ashkenazim (Hebrew
for Germanic) developed somewhat different religious customs, rites and
rules as well as a different pronunciation of Hebrew. (15)
PROBLEMS OF TERMINOLOGY: The only language that is common to
all Jews is Hebrew and it is the only one that can be properly called the
"Jewish" language.
The practice of referring to "Yiddish" as "Jewish" is I feel as wrong
as if "Ladino" speakers were to refer to Ladino as "Jewish". Both "Yid"-dish
and "Jud"-esmo(16) translate into English as "Jewish".
Further complicating and compounding this is the habit (to Sephardim offensive)
of referring to Ashkenazic food, language, music, culture, etc. as "Jewish"
instead of Yiddish.
MAMELOSH'N: (Mother tongue). Each of the Sephardic peoples have
their own mother tongue, food, culture, etc. and do not refer to
it as "Jewish" though these are as eminently Jewish as any. There must
develop some sensitivity when referring to those things, that are
specifically Ashkenazic, in a manner that does not divide and offend their
non-Ashkenazic brethren. That sensitivity includes refraining from the
use of such terms as:
"What? You don't speak Jewish?" (Yiddish)
"You don't look Jewish." (Skin color and features)
"Jewish cooking, baking, music, stories, etc." (East European in origin)
Examples:
Nathan Ausaubel: The Treasury of Jewish Folklore
Grossinger: The Art of Jewish Cooking
Jewish Foods: Gefilte Fish, Latkes, Bagels, Lox, etc.
Jewish Music, Names, Songs, etc.
In contrast to this, we say:
The Sephardic Cookbook (Sephardic Temple, L.A.)
Sephardic Food, Music, Romances (Spanish songs), "Turkeria"
(baking), One Thousand and One stories (Arabian Nights), etc.
There is much that unites us, especially our struggle down through the
ages to maintain our customs, beliefs, and identity and to prevent (against
all odds) our extermination.
We are a diverse amalgamation of different cultures. We cannot permit
ourselves to fall into the habit of looking down on other peoples (Jewish
or non-Jewish) nor to do unto others what was done to us. The Golden Years
of our Spanish-Jewish-Moorish diversity enriched our Spanish-Jewish heritage
and Jewish History as a whole.
The "Oriental" Jews
Of late many writers have begun to refer to Sephardics as Oriental Jews.
While not taking issue with "Oriental" when applied to Far Eastern Jews,
I do find it odd when it is being applied to all Sephardim who range from
Spain, France, Morocco, etc. (which are west of Europe) or to those from
the Balkans, North Africa, or the Middle East. Why the need for a new divisive
term? Why are Jews from Poland or Russia "European" and Sephardim now "Oriental"?
Correctly speaking, we Sephardics are Middle Eastern as all Jews were and
are in origin. New divisions are not needed nor welcomed.
Where else did the Sephardim Go?
Where else did the Sephardim go besides the new world? England, Holland,
and Germany, Jerusalem and the coast of North Africa, the Balkans: Albania,
Yugoslavia, Italy, Bulgaria, Rumania, Greece, Turkey, the Islands of the
Aegean, Rhodes, Cyprus, to name the principle ones.
World Population Statistics
An estimated 14 million Jews now exist. Three and a half million (25%)
are Sephardic.
The largest Sephardic community is in Israel where a total of 3.8 million
Jews live, of these over 2.05 million are Sephardic (54%). In the U.S.
and France, Sephardim represent 200,000 and 400,000 respectively.
We aren't a majority - we aren't more important nor less. We are proud
of our history. It is worth knowing. As history and because
part of who we are is who our forebearers were. As Papa used to say "you
should know about our history so you can tell it to your children." THANKS,
Papa.
Footnotes
1.-Much of the existing documentation is in a deteriorating or unreadable
condition.
2.-The Visigoths applied the same forms already in use among their own
tribes. Followers of Arius (thus Aryan Christians,) they believed that
"Jesus, the son was not equal to God, the father." They were considered
heretical by the Roman Catholic hierarchy. Since the Hebrew faith emphasizes
One God, the Visigoths and Jews had a common theological meeting ground,
in spite of differences.
3.-In Sephardic religious practice Rabbis all had a trade by which they
earned their living.Their teaching, (rabbi means teacher,)was part of their
faith and not a means of earning a living.
4, 5, 6.- I include these three of the many hundreds of French Sephardics
from the Provence (French Catalonia) which would be another history in
itself.
7.- Many historians question whether these individuals had a "choice",
considering the alternative.
8.- Spanish documents do not contain this spelling.
9.- Sephardic Spain, by Victor Laredo (1978)Editorial Mensaje (in English)
10.-The activity of the inquisition was so enormous that in the general
archives of Mexico, there are 1500 catalogues plus thousands of individual
documents (not studied or catalogued.)These documents would bring to light
the extent of those of Jewish background, (conversos) in the social strata
( high society.) Countless documents have been deliberately destroyed to
hide this fact. Access to the existing files is not permitted even to this
day. (cf.Elnecave,Nissim)
11.-This street, filled with rubble had been walled in .Senor Tarres
obtained city permission to dig out the debris and it is now open at both
ends permitting foot traffic access to the Nahmanides center that also
is believed to have housed the second synagog of Gerona.
12.-Senor Porta says "I have no proof of my possible connection to the
Nahmans, so I claim none.My family has owned this house for over 300 years,
to my knowledge." Senor Porta, it turned out,( when my brother Sammy interviewed,
and videotaped his house) served in the same "Mac- Pap" batallion, as a
medic, in which Sammy served in the fight against fascism in Spain (1936-1939)as
a machine gunner.
13.-Jews were accepted and drafted into the army after Turkey became
a Republic.However, there was mistreatment and discrimination even though
this was not as a matter of official policy. Sam (our fathers brothers)
died under unexplained circumstance. This embittered our father Haim and
he took his brother Albert, of draft age and they left Turkey.
14.-Praise be to Allah (God)
15.-For the record: The State of Israel returned to the Sephardic pronunciation
of Hebrew, thus undoing the Ashkenazi revision, as was spoken by them in
eastern Europe.
16.-Nissim Elnacave (see Bibliography) uses the terms "Ladino" and "Judesmo"
interchangeably. I do not, Yiddish is, as aware Ashkenazis say "mother
tongue." (mamaloshin) That is correct, (in my opinion), there are many
"Judeo- mother tongues. None should be called Jewish. The only Jewish
language
is Hebrew.
References:
Elnecave, N. (1981) Los Hijos de Ibero-Franconia. [The Sons
of Iberia/France]. Buenos Aires: Editorial La "Luz".
Encyclopaedia Britannica (1988). Spain (Vol.28). Chicago: Encyclopaedia
Britannica.
Romano, D. (1988). Per a una historia de la Girona Jueva (Vols.
1-2). [A History of the Jews of Girona] Girona: Ajuntamente de Girona.
Laredo, V. (1978) Sephardic Spain. New York: Editorial Mensaje.
Revised: August 31, 1991
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